<UL%^^^if~- ***** 

ESSAYS ^U//,^/T 



PROGRESS OF NATIONS 



IN CIVILIZATION, PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY, WEALTH 
AND POPULATION. 



ILLUSTRATED BY 

STATISTICS OF MINING, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, COM- 
MERCE, BANKING, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, EMIGRATION 
AND POPULATION. 



BY EZRA C. SEAMAN. 



Sttontr %mt%< 



NEW YORK: 

CHARLES SCRIBNER & CO., 654 BROADWAY. 

1868. 



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S' 



*-«* 






2j 



9r *»aafor (tool 
April 1914. 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by 

EZRA C. SEAMAN, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District 

Michigan. 



3 c 



The New York Printing Company, 

8 i, 83, and 85 Centre Street, 

New York. 



PREFACE. 



Many years having elapsed since the first volume of this work was 
rewritten and stereotyped ; a new census having been taken in the 
United States, in nearly all the American States, in every country of 
Europe except Turkey, and in all the colonies of Great Britain and 
other European nations ; great progress having been made by en- 
lightened and industrial nations ; and many great events having 
occurred in the mean time, which throw new light upon the subject 
of economical, political, and social science, this volume has been 
prepared to bring the work down to the present time. The influence 
of climate and circumstances upon the character and destinies of a 
people, (I flatter myself), are shown in a clearer and stronger light, 
and more 'fully developed, than they have ever been heretofore ; and 
views are presented which, in the present distracted and alarming 
condition of our country, should commend themselves to the careful 
consideration of the American people. 

Though I have discussed, very briefly, many political questions, 
and principles of social and political philosophy, economical science, 
and public policy, I have endeavored to do it, not in a partisan 
spirit, nor to promote partisan ends and purposes ; but, regarding our 
country as in a very critical condition, have aimed to moderate the 
violence of party spirit, and to advance medium and moderate views 
and reforms, which are practical in their character, and upon which 
all conservative and moderate men and rational reformers can unite, 
without any great sacrifice of principle or opinion. My object has 
been, to avoid extreme theories, not tested by experience; to oppose 
extreme changes, based on theory only — not consistent with the 
history of any great and successful people ; and to base my reason- 
ing upon history — its facts and results. How far I have succeeded 
in throwing new light upon the subjects and questions discussed, or 
in presenting to the consideration of the public, facts and views of a 
useful character, I must leave my readers to judge. 



IV PREFACE. 

The original programme which I marked out for the work, would 
occupy so much more space than was anticipated, that I have not been 
able to carry it out ; but must leave so much of it as regards the 
resources and condition, the productive industry, the commerce, the 
institutions, and the distinctive character of the peoples of the 
several countries of Europe, to be presented in a third volume, at 
some future period. 

In preparing the work, I have not had access to original docu- 
ments published by the order of any government but our own, and 
have been obliged to rely upon historical works, such works as 
Malte-Brun's Geography, Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geography, 
McCulloch's Universal Gazetteer, and the New American Cyclo- 
paedia, for information of the condition of things and matters which 
occurred more than a quarter of a century since ; and upon Hunt's 
Merchants' Magazine, the Companion to the British Almanac, and 
the Almanach de Gotha, for statistics and facts of recent occurrence 
in countries other than the United States. 

Perfect accuracy cannot be reasonably expected ; the information 
relied on is generally the best that is attainable ; and where govern- 
ments have failed to collect and publish full and complete informa- 
tion of the number of inhabitants and their industry, etc., such things 
have in some instances been estimated from the best data attainable. 
The statements and estimates are believed to approximate to the 
truth sufficiently, to form comparisons between peoples and nations, 
to illustrate national policies, and to form safe foundations for 
reasoning. 

Ann Arbor, Mich., April 7th, 1868. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



ON THE ELEMENTS AND AGENTS, MEANS AND INSTRUMENTS, WHICH 
PROMOTE THE PROGRESS OF PEOPLES AND NATIONS, I-87. 

Sec. i. The elements and causes of progress. 

Sec. 2. Natural causes and elements of progress enumerated. 

Sec. 3. Evidences- of intellect, and of inferiority of mind. 

Sec 4. The human hand, and its importance. 

Sec. 5. The human voice, and its importance. 

Sec. 6. Natural fertility and resources of countries. 

Sec 7. Navigable waters, good harbors, and good climates. 

Sec 8. Artificial elements and agents, means and instruments of progress 

enumerated. 
Sec 9. Comments on the artificial elements of progress designated. 

1. Domestic animals. 

2. The art of smelting ores and working metals. 

3. Mechanical inventions and instruments of industry long in 

use. 

4. The arts of making earthen and stone ware and bricks. 

5. Commerce and navigation. v 

6. Fixed habitations, and private property in lands as well as 

in chattels. 

7. A proper division of employments. 

8. Hieroglyphics, symbols and pictures. 

9. Letters and written language. 

10. Governments and written laws. 

11. Schools and colleges, public libraries, and associations for 

literary and scientific purposes. 

12. An industrial education, and habits of industry and economy. 

13. The natural and medical sciences. 

14. The principles of geometry. 

15. Moral science, virtue and patriotism, and public spirit. 

16. The Bible, and the principles of the Christian religion. 



VI CONTENTS. 

1 7. Arabic figures, and the rules of arithmetic. 

18. Municipal corporations. 

19. Corporations for religious and educational, literary and sci- 

entific, charitable and philanthropic purposes. 

20. The organization of capital and labor, by means of private 

corporations. 

21. The mariner's compass. 

22. Movable types, the printing press, and paper. 

23. The arts of making and blowing glass, making instruments 

and utensils of glass, and glass windows. 

24. The telescope, and the knowledge of the solar system. 
The discovery of America. 

25. Saw mills. 

26. Clocks and watches. 

27. Religious toleration. 

28. Civil, religious, and political liberty. 

29. The principle of non-intervention. 

30. The elective representative system of legislation. 

31. The system of legislation by the concurrent action of two 

separate legislative bodies. 

32. Political science, and sound principles of law and government. 

33. The federal, dual, and co-ordinate system of government. 

34. Sound maxims of law, and sound principles and maxims of 

morals and political economy. 

35. Post-offices and mails. 

36. Roads and bridges. 

37. Canals and river improvements. 

38. Common public schools. 

39. Chimneys and stoves. 

40. The steam engine. 

41. Machinery for rolling and slitting iron. 

42. Machinery for carding, spinning, and weaving. 

43. Banks and banking, and bills of exchange. 

44. Insurances, and insurance companies. 

45. Savings banks. 

46. Gunpowder and fire-arms. 

47. Military science, and military schools. 

48. Coal gas. 

49. Penitentiaries and workhouses. 

50. Asylums for the insane, and for the deaf, dumb, and blind. 

51. Steamboats, and steam navigation. 

52. Railroads. 

53. Locomotives. 



CONTENTS. Vll 

54. Electric telegraphs. 

55. Labor-saving instruments and machinery, invented since the 

American Revolution. 

56. Schools of the natural and mechanical sciences, and commer- 

cial colleges. 

57. Express companies. 

58. The arts of vocal and instrumental music, painting, and 

sculpture. 

59. The arts of daguerreotyping and photographing. 

60. The art of boring artesian wells. 

61. A wise public policy. 

Sec. 10. General comments upon the elements of progress. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

OBSTACLES AND IMPEDIMENTS TO THE PROGRESS OF A NATION OR PEOPLE. 

88-II8. 

1st. The barrenness of the country which a people inhabit. 
2d. The want of sufficient wood and timber. 
3d. The want of sufficient mineral resources. 
4th. The extreme aridity of some countries, and their liability to severe 

droughts. 
5th. An interior situation, and the want of navigable rivers and bays, lakes 

and water-courses. 
6th. The want of good harbors. 
7th. A very limited and small extent of country. 
8th. An unhealthy climate. 

9th. The heat of the torrid zone, and of countries bordering on it. 
loth. Feebleness of mind, ignorance and superstition, immoralities and vices. 
nth. An excessive use of intoxicating liquors, and particularly of distilled 

spirits. 
1 2th. Habits of indolence and dissipation. 

13th. Gross superstitions, infanticide, and other human sacrifices. 
14th. The Mahometan religion. 
15th. The Popish inquisition. 
1 6th. Monastic orders, monasteries and nunneries. 

17th. The monopoly of large amounts of property by churches and eccle- 
siastics. 
1 8th. The feudal system, and the oppressive powers and privileges of a 

feudal aristocracy growing out of it. 
19th. Religious delusions and prejudices, ecclesiastical ambition, intolerance, 
and persecution. 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

20th. Wars and insurrections. 

2 1 st. Large standing armies. 

22d. Forced military service in time of peace, and in foreign wars. 

23 d. Insecurity of property. 
24th. Chattel slavery. 

25th. Excessive taxation, and tyranny of any kind. 
26th. Laws of primogeniture, and the custom of entailing property. 
27th. The importation of foreign manufactures and luxuries without duty, or 

for very low duties. 
28th. The ownership of large amounts of property, by residents of other 

countries. 
29th. Large indebtedness to other countries. 
30th. An excessive and redundant paper currency. 
31st. A zealous sectarian spirit, and excessive and violent party spirit. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

ON LAW AND ORGANIZATION ; EDUCATION, AND THE RELIGIOUS CREEDS 
AND SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD — THEIR INFLUENCE UPON THE MENTAL 
AND MORAL CHARACTER OF MAN, AND UPON THE PROGRESS OF PEO- 
PLES AND NATIONS ; AND THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS OF LAW 
AND GOVERNMENT, II9-I75. 

Sec. i. Introductory remarks. 

Sec. 2. Bonds of union — law and organization. 

Sec. 3. Ecclesiastical, educational, and philanthropic organizations and cor- 
porations. 

Sec. 4. Powers of government limited by the laws of nature. 

Sec. 5. Moral suasion, and ecclesiastical government. 

Sec. 6. Brahminism — its character and tendencies. 

Sec. 7. Buddhism — its character and influences. 

Sec. 8. Character of Polytheism. 

Sec. 9. Magianism and Judaism. 

Sec. 10. Christianity — and its influences upon civilization and progress. 

Sec. 11. The teachings and perversions of Christianity. 

Sec. 12. Mahometanism — its character and influence. 

Sec. 13. Fall of the western Roman empire, and condition of the eastern 
empire, and of Persia, at the death of Mahomet. 

Sec. 14. Mahomet and his followers — the Saracens and Turks — their suc- 
cesses, decline, and character. 

Sec. 15. On the causes of the decline and fall of the Roman and Greek 
empires, and of the conquests of the Mahometans. 

Sec. 16. Means of instruction and education, and of diffusing knowledge. 



CONTENTS. IX 

Sec. i 7. Preaching, organized churches and schools. 

Sec. 18. The influence of Christianity upon the appreciation of human life, 

upon ambition, and upon the spirit of revenge. 
Sec. 19. Amusements and vices. 

Sec. 20. Law and justice may be developed under an imperial despotism. 
Sec. 21. Liberty — how developed. 

Sec. 22. Development of the legislative power of the Commons of England. 
Sec. 23. The development of judicial power, and of the judiciary — into a 

distinct and independent department of government. 
Sec. 24. Progress of law and government in modern Europe and America. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

ON THE DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN, AND THEIR CAUSES ; AND ON 
THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE AND EDUCATION UPON THE PHYSICAL CON- 
STITUTION AND NATURE, AND UPON THE MENTAL AND MORAL CHARAC- 
TER OF MAN, 1 76-229. 

Sec. i. Races of men. 

Sec. 2. Causes of the different races. 

Sec. 3. Causes of the complexion of the colored races. 

Sec. 4. Effect of climate on the animal and vegetable kingdoms. 

Sec. 5. Direct effects of heat and cold on man. 
Indirect effects of heat and cold on man. 

Sec. 6. Intellectual capacity and characteristics of the people of hot climates. 

Sec. 7. Effects of climate upon the white people of the Southern States. 

Sec. 8. Characteristics of the negro race. 

Sec. 9. Their fitness for domestic servants and laborers. 

Sec. 10. Evil tendency and effects charged to slavery — partly chargeable to 
climate. 

Sec. 11. Condition and character of the Jews and the Negroes compared. 

Sec. 12. Future status of the colored man, and danger of conferring politi- 
cal power upon uneducated negroes. 

Sec. 13. Security of the colored man. 

Sec. 14. Miscegenation, and the improvement of the colored races. 

Sec. 15. The American Indians — their intellectual capacity and character. 
Domestic animals and their uses, 

Sec. 16. Intellectual inferiority, miserable condition and subserviency of the 
people of Mexico and South America, of Indian descent. 

Sec. 17. The education of the colored races, of both Indian and African 
descent. 

Sec. 18. Self-government and its influence on the mind. 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

ON MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES, 230-276. 

Sec. i. General remarks. 

Sec. 2. The Ottoman empire, and its inhabitants and tributaries. 

Sec. 3. Climate, natural resources, and condition of Turkey in Europe. 

Sec. 4. Climate, natural resources, and condition of Turkey in Asia. 

Sec. 5. Government of Turkey, and civil and social state of the people. 

Sec. 6. The means of education, and of acquiring knowledge and informa- 
tion, defective. 

Sec. 7. Modes of living, and religious sects. 

Sec. 8. Productive industry of Turkey. 

Sec. 9. Commerce of the Turkish empire. 

Sec. 10. Taxation and revenues of Turkey. 

Sec. 11. History, and probable destiny of the Turkish empire. 

Sec. 12. Arabia. 

Sec. 13. Persia, Afghanistan, and Beloochistan. 

Sec. 14. Independent Tartary — or Turkestan. 

Sec. 15. Egypt and its dependencies. 

Sec. 16. Tripoli, Tunis, Fezzan, and Barca. 

Sec. 17. Algeria. 

Sec. 18. Empire of Morocco. 

Sec. 19. Influence of mountains and forests upon climate and vegetation. 

Sec. 20. Desert of Sahara. 

Sec. 21. Influence of Mahometanism upon the character and policy of peo- 
ples and nations. 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES, 277-3 1 5. 

Sec. i. General remarks. 

Sec. 2. China — its area, population, and natural resources. 

Sec. 3. Importance of written language. 

Sec. 4. Modes of forming written language, and peculiarities of the Chinese 

language. 
Sec. 5. Arts, inventions, and improvements of the Chinese. 
Sec. 6. Religion and government, education and character, of the Chinese. 
Sec. 7. Causes of the slow progress of the Chinese. 
Sec. 8. Probable future destiny of the Chinese. 
Sec. 9. Thibet. 

Sec. 10. Chinese Tartary and Mongolia. 
Sec. 11. Mantchooria. 
Sec. 12. History and achievements of the Tartars. 



CONTENTS. XI 

Sec. 13. Corea. 

Sec. 14. The islands of Japan. 

Sec. 15. Farther India, or India beyond the Ganges. 

Sec. 16. Government and religion, civil and social state, of India beyond 

the Ganges. 
Sec. 17. Arts and industry of the people, and commerce. 
Sec. 18. Condition of the country and of the people compared with China 

and the Chinese. 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 

HINDOSTAN AND THE BRITISH COLONIES AND POSSESSIONS IN ASIA 
AND AUSTRALIA, AFRICA, AND THE ISLES OF THE OCEAN, 3 1 6-365. 

Sec. i. Hindostan, and its natural resources. 

Sec. 2. Area and population of Hindostan, and the British possessions in 
Asia. 

Sec. 3. Roads, canals, railroads, and other British improvements in Hin- 
dostan. 

Sec. 4. Industry and exports and imports of Hindostan at different periods. 

Sec. 5. Religion and law, schools and means of information, in Hindostan. 

Sec. 6. The Hindoos compared with the Chinese. 

Sec 7. Concluding remarks on British India. 

Sec. 8. Australia, or New-Holland — its situation and climate, extent and 
subdivisions. 

Sec. 9. Population of the Australian colonies, including Van Diemen's 
Land and New Zealand, at different periods. 

Sec. 10. The natives of Australia and New Zealand. 

Sec. 11. The climate and natural resources of Australia and New Zealand. 

Sec. 12. Statistics of the Australian colonies. 

Sec. 13. Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. 

Sec. 14. The colony of Natal. 

Sec. 15. Mauritius and the Seychelles. 

Sec. 16. Sierra Leone and Gambia. 

Sec. 17. Forts and trading posts in Guinea. 

Sec. 18. Islands of Fernando Po, St. Helena, and Ascension. 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

TROPICAL AND SOUTHERN AFRICA AND ITS ISLANDS ; AND THE RACES AND 
PEOPLES OF THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA, 366-421. 

Sec. i. Natural resources of tropical Africa, and impediments to progress. 
Sec. 2. Races of Africa, and their characteristics. 



Xll CONTENTS. 

Sec. 3. Elements of discord and anarchy, and of corruption also, in tropical 

Africa. 
Sec. 4, Migrations in Africa ; intercourse and mixture of the negro races, 

and their influence upon the negro tribes and nations. 
Sec 5. Religion and morals of the negro nations. 
Sec. 6. Languages and schools among the negro tribes and nations. 
Sec. 7. Arts and industry, improvements and condition of the negro tribes 

and kingdoms. 
Sec. 8. Inferiority of the negro races, and the causes thereof. 
Sec. 9. French possessions in Africa. 
Sec. 10. The island of Madagascar. 
Sec. 11. Liberia and the American Colonization Society. 
Sec. 12. The Dutch Republics in Africa. 
Sec. 13. Abyssinia. 

Sec 14. The countries of Eastern Africa. 
Sec 15. Countries of Central Africa. 
Sec. 16. Interior Africa south of Soudan. 
Sec. 17. Population of the continent of Africa, 



CHAPTER XXX. 

OCEANICA AND ITS INHABITANTS J AND THE MALAY PENINSULA, 422-481. 

Sec. 1. Preliminary remarks. 

Sec 2. Climate and natural resources of the Oceanian islands. 

Sec. 3. Races of the inhabitants, and their characteristics and advance in 

the arts. 
Sec. 4. Origin and history of the people of Oceanica, and of their civilization. 
Sec, 5. The Malay peninsula. 
Sec. 6. The island of Sumatra. 
Sec. 7. The islands of Java and Madura. 
Sec. 8. Population of the Dutch possessions in the East Indian islands, at 

different periods. 
Sec. 9, The islands of Rhio, Banca, and Billeton. 
Sec. 10. The island of Borneo. 
Sec. 11. The island of Celebes and its inhabitants. 

Sec. 12. The island of Bali — its population, government, and prosperity. 
Sec 13. Timor, Flores, and Sumbawa, 
Sec. 14. The Moluccas or Spice Islands. 
Sec. 15. New Guinea ; and reflections upon the character and condition of 

the natives. 
Sec. 16. The Philippine islands. 



CONTENTS. X1I1 

See. 17. Reflections upon the character, condition and progress of the 

natives of the Philippine islands. 
See. 18. The Sooloo islands, and the piracies of the people. 
See. 19. Climate of the Polynesian islands, and the character, and civil 

and social state of the natives. 
See. 20. Arts and industry of the natives, and their present condition. 
See. 21. The large islands of western Polynesia. 
See. 22. The Sandwich islands. 
See. 23. Other groups of islands of Oceanica. 
See. 24. General comments upon Oceanica and its inhabitants. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS, AND OTHER EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS IN THEIR 
VICINITY, 482-524. 

Sec. 1. Preliminary remarks upon the islands. 

Sec. 2. The islands which belong to Spain. 

Sec. 3. The islands which belong to France. 

Sce. 4. The islands which belong to the Dutch. 

Sec. 5. The Danish islands. 

Sec. 6. St. Bartholomew. 

Sec. 7. Summary of the history of the island of St. Domingo, or Hayti. 

Sec. 8. History of the island continued. The Republic of Hayti. 

Sec. 9. The Dominican Republic. 

Sec. 10. Comments on the history of St. Domingo. 

Sec. 11. The government of Hayti. 

Sec. 12. Schools and education. 

Sec. 13. Religion and morals. 

Sec. 14. Industry, and the system of coercive labor. 

Sec. 15. Exports and population. 

Sec. 16. The island of Jamaica. 

Sec. 17. Population of the British islands. 

Sec. 18. Coolies, Chinese, and other immigrants. 

Sec. 19. The Bahamas, and the Bermuda islands. 

Sec. 20. Barbadoes. 

Sec. 21. Social statistics, and social vices of the islanders. 

Sec. 22. Effects and errors of West Indian emancipation. 

Sec. 23. Our freedmen compared with those of the West Indies. 

Sec. 24. British Honduras, or Balize. 

Sec. 25. British Guiana. 

Sec. 26. Dutch Guiana, or Surinam. 

Sec. 27. French Guiana, or Cayenne. 



XIV CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XXXII. 

CATHOLIC AMERICA, 525-555. 

Sec. 1. Introductory remarks, and views of the character and condition 
of the peoples. . 

Sec. 2. Mexico — its resources and population. 

Sec. 3. Recent history, and probable future of Mexico. 

Sec. 4. Central America. 

Sec. 5. New Grenada, or United States of Colombia. 

Sec. 6. The Republic of Venezuela, 

Sec. 7. Ecuador, or Equator. 

Sec. 8. Peru — its area and population. 

Sec. 9. Bolivia — its situation and population. 

Sec. 10. Chili — its population and progress. 

Sec. 11. The Argentine Confederation, and Patagonia. 

Sec. 12. Paraguay — its government and people. 

Sec. 13. Uruguay, or Banda Oriental. 

Sec. 14. Brazil. 

Sec. 15. Table illustrating the progress of population in different coun- 
tries of America. 

Sec. 16. General remarks — steam navigation and railroads, and their in- 
fluence. 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 556-614. 

Sec. i. Tables of the population of the United States from 1790 to i860. 

Sec. 2. Emigration to the United States, and natural increase of the popu- 
lation. 

Sec. 3. Railroads, and their extent and cost at different periods in the 
United States. 

Sec. 4. Tables showing the mechanical, manufacturing, and mining in- 
dustry of the United States. 

Sec. 5. Tables, of the agricultural statistics of the United States. 

Sec. 6. Aggregate values produced in 1840, 1850, and i860. 

Sec. 7. Production of gold and silver in the United States. 

Sec. 8. Amount of gold, silver, and copper coined in the United States. 

Sec. 9. State and local taxation for 1859. 

Sec. 10. Public debt, taxation and revenues, and expenditures of the govern- 
ment of the United States. 

Sec. 1 1. Comments on the taxation and revenues, expenditures and public 
debt of the United States. 



CONTENTS. XV 

Sec. 12. Foreign commerce of the United States, and influence of the 

tariff acts. 
Sec. 13. Banks and bank-notes, and treasury notes. 
Sec. 14. Influence of an inflated currency upon prices, upon commerce 

and industry, and upon the accumulation of the national debt. 
Sec. 15. The cause of temperance. 
Sec. 16. Wood and timber, and the means of preserving and cultivating 

them. 

Remedies suggested. 
Sec. 17. Deterioration of the organic laws of the States. 
Sec. 18. Intense and violent party spirit, and its evils. 
Sec. 19. Remedies suggested. 
Sec. 20. Reconstruction measures and policies. 

CHAPTER XXXIV. 

BRITISH NORTH AMERICA, 6 1 5-624. 

Sec. 1. Tables of population and immigration. 
Sec. 2. Religious divisions of the people. 
Sec. 3. Farms and agricultural capital. 
Sec. 4. Occupations of the people of the provinces. 
Sec. 5. Agricultural products of i860, as reported by the census. 
Sec. 6. Railroads — their cost and income for the year 1865. 
Sec. 7. Canals, and public debt of the provinces. 
Sec. 8. Productive industry, exports, and valuation of property. 
Sec. 9. Mother England's Canada farm. 

Sec. 10. Vancouver's Island, Hudson's Bay, British Columbia, and the 
Hudson's Bay territories. 

CHAPTER XXXV. 

EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS, 625-650. 

Sec. i. Population of Great Britain and Ireland, and their colonies and 
possessions, at different periods. 

Sec. 2. The area and population of France, and her colonies and posses- 
sions, at different periods. 

Sec. 3. Holland, or Netherlands, and her colonies and possessions. 

Sec. 4. Progress of the population of Belgium. 

Sec. 5. Progress of the population of Portugal. 

Sec. 6. Progress of the population of Spain. 

Sec. 7. Switzerland — area, and progress of the population. 

Sec. 8. Italy — progress of the population. 



XVI CONTENTS. 

Sec. 9. Austria — its subdivisions and population. 

Sec. 10. Prussia and the German States. 

Sec. 11. The North German Confederation. 

Sec. 12. Kingdoms allied to the North. 

German Confederation. 

Sec. 13. Denmark. 

Sec. 14. Sweden and Norway. 

Sec. 15. Russian empire. 

Sec. 16. Moldavia and Wallachia. 

Sec. 17. Servia and Montenegro. 

Sec. 18. Greece and the Ionian islands. 

Sec. 19. The population of Europe. 

Sec. 20. The railroads of Europe, and of the world. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

On the elements and agents, means and instru- 
ments, WHICH PROMOTE THE PROGRESS OF PEOPLES AND 
NATIONS. 

Sec. i. The elements and causes of progress. 

The causes and elements of human progress are both 
natural and artificial. The principal and most efficient 
causes of progress are natural, — such as exist in the 
nature and condition of things, and in the nature and 
faculties of man. But the most numerous class of the 
causes, instruments, and elements of progress, are artifi- 
cial, originating in the human mind, in observation and 
perception, in experience and thought, and in reflection 
and reasoning ; which eventuate in the discovery of new 
truths and principles of science, new modes and methods 
of thought and action, and in the invention of new things 
and instruments of industry. The invention of the letters 
of the alphabet, and the construction of a written language 
to communicate thought, descriptions of things, and state- 
ments of action and natural phenomena, constitute the 
initial point of the progress of communities, and of the 
formation of nations. 

Sec 2. Natural causes and elements of progress. 

The following are the principal natural causes and 
elements of progress : — 

ist. A high order of intellect, and especially the reason- 
ing and inventive faculties of the human mind. Persons 
are capable of learning, who have not sufficient intellect 
to promote the progress of the race. 

2d. The peculiar structure of the human hand, and its 
wonderful adaptation to industry of every kind. 

3d. The great flexibility and capacity of the human 

1 



2 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

voice, and its adaptation to the expression and communi- 
cation of ideas. 

4th. The natural fertility, and the mineral and other 
resources of a country, and its capacity to furnish employ- 
ment and subsistence to a large population. 

5 th. Navigable rivers and watercourses, proximity to 
the sea, and good harbors. 

6th. A good climate. 

Sec. 3. Evidences of intellect, and of inferiority of mind. 
The aggregate progress which a nation or people have 
made in the industrial arts, in the sciences, in social life, 
and in law and government, furnishes a very accurate in- 
dex of their intellectual development, and indicates the 
natural grade of the intellect of the people. The fact that 
certain peoples have for hundreds and thousands of years 
made no progress in the useful arts, in the sciences, nor 
in social life, furnishes conclusive evidence of inferiority 
of race and intellect. There are some peculiar circum- 
stances — such as ecclesiastical and military despotism, 
mahometanism, and such a general disorganization of 
society as existed during the dark ages — which furnish 
exceptions to that general truth ; but its general accu- 
racy is indisputable. The stationary condition of that 
section of Africa lying in the torrid zone, and the fact 
that no invention or science has originated there during 
the period of authentic history, within the last three 
thousand years, furnish conclusive evidence that the 
natural intellects of the people are inferior to those 
of the people of Europe. 

Sec. 4. The human hand. 

The human hand is a wonderful organ ; and, taking 
the two hands together, they are admirably adapted to 
every kind of action and industry which the strength 
and condition of man are capable of. If a horse, or any 
other animal without hands, had as much natural intellect 
as Julius Caesar or Napoleon Bonaparte, he could accom- 
plish nothing, and could make no progress, for want of 
hands as instruments of action, to carry into practical 
effect the conceptions of the intellect. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS, 3 

All the monkey species have hands fitted for industry ; 
and the fact that they make very little industrial use of 
their hands, build no nouses, and make no efforts to cul- 
tivate the earth, to accumulate property, or to improve 
their condition, shows their inferiority of intellect to the 
lowest race of savages ever found upon the earth. 

The deaf and the dumb, and the blind also, having hands 
and intellect, are capable of receiving instruction, and of 
making their industry useful to a high degree, compared 
with that of the animal creation. 

Sec. 5. The human voice. 

The human voice has a wonderful flexibility and capa- 
city, beyond that of all the animal creation. It not only 
enables man to communicate facts, occurrences, and 
phenomena, but every idea, shade of opinion, and plan, 
which the human mind can conceive ; and it enables 
peoples and tribes that have no written language, to 
hand down from one generation to another, orally, or by 
tradition, a vast amount of information. In this respect, 
also, the savage is greatly superior to all the animal 
creation below man. 

Sec. 6. Natural fertility and resources. 

No nation can make much progress in industry, or 
population, unless the people have a country of sufficient 
size, fertility, and natural resources, to employ and sup- 
port a larger population than it has. A large, fertile, and 
thinly populated country invites emigrants and adven- 
turers, who come to improve their condition. This is the 
principal cause why the United States have increased in 
population, during the last fifty years, more than twice as 
fast as Great Britain. This cause has rendered provisions 
and living cheap in the former and dear in the latter, and 
invited emigrants to the United States, and driven them 
from the British Islands ; because the latter are over- 
peopled, and the former furnish great fields of employ- 
ment, and the means of bettering their condition and 
that of their children. 



4 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

In considering the elements of progress in a country, 
all its natural resources, which aid in furnishing employ- 
ment and the means of subsistence for its inhabitants, 
should be taken into the account. Its forests of wood 
and timber, its minerals, its climate, and its facilities for 
commerce, as well as the extent of the country, and the 
fertility of its soil, should all be estimated. Considering 
all those things, the Island of Great Britain is superior in 
resources and the natural elements of progress to any 
other island or country in the world, in proportion to its 
extent. Its climate is very good, as a whole, it is superior 
in natural fertility to any country of Europe or America ; 
its mineral resources of coal and iron, copper and tin, are 
from five to ten times as large as any other country, in 
proportion to its size ; and its seaport facilities for foreign 
commerce, are also superior to every other country, 
though it has no such port as that of New York. Its 
insular situation has greatly facilitated its defense against 
foreign enemies, and rendered it unnecessary to keep a 
large standing army. 

These are among the principal causes of the rapid pro- 
gress of the industry and commerce, population and 
wealth of Great Britain, during the last hundred years. 
In 1750 the population of England and Wales was about 
6,700,000, and that of Scotland about a million and a 
quarter ; total for Great Britain less than eight millions. 
The population of Great Britain increased in fifty-one 
years, to 1801, to about ten and a half millions ; and in 
sixty years, to 1861, to over twenty-three millions. 

The fertility of the soil in that cool and moist climate 
will never deteriorate under English culture, and the 
iron-stones of the hills and mountains may be regarded as 
inexhaustible. But such is not the case with the coal- 
mines. The coal annually mined in Great Britain for 
some years past has been estimated at between seventy 
and ninety millions of tons ; whilst the quantity mined 
in the United States in i860 was only about fifteen and a 
half millions of tons. 

Such an immense quantity of coal taken annually from 
the mines of Great Britain must gradually exhaust those 
beds that are accessible ; and there is much reason to 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 5 

believe that the exhaustion of most of them, at the pres- 
ent "rate of consumption, will occur within a century. 
Since the wood is mostly cut off, the people not only de- 
pend wholly on the coal-beds for fuel, but for motive 
power also, — to work their steam-engines, in working the 
mines, to smelt their ores of iron and copper, to forge 
and roll their iron, and to move nearly all their machinery 
for the manufacture of cutlery and hardware, cotton and 
woollen, silk and linen goods. 

Coal supplies the steam-engine, and keeps it in motion ; 
and the two together furnish the motive power, whereby 
employment and the means of subsistence are furnished 
to from twelve to fifteen millions of inhabitants. When 
many of the coal-mines of the island shall have been ex- 
hausted, all the machinery dependent on the steam-en- 
gines must stop ; the use of coal must be economized, it 
must be mostly confined to warming and cooking pur- 
poses ; and then the population of the island will rapidly 
decline, until it is reduced to eight or ten millions. 

Sec. 7. Navigable waters, good harbors, and good 
climates. 

Navigable rivers and watercourses, seas and oceans, 
all facilitate commerce, which is the great handmaid of 
industry, and one of the principal elements of progress 
and of civilization. Nearly all the countries bordering 
on the Mediterranean Sea were blessed with a good cli- 
mate, as well as the advantages of navigation. Egypt, 
Assyria, Hindostan, India beyond the Ganges, and China, 
were and are all blessed with pretty good climates, and 
with remarkably large and fine navigable rivers ; and 
hence letters, and many of the useful arts, which are the 
germs of civilization, sprang up spontaneously in those 
countries at an early period, when the people of all West- 
ern, Northern, and Central Europe were in a savage or 
barbarous state. The arts, laws, and institutions of civ- 
ilization, were transplanted from those highly favored 
countries, first to Western, and afterwards to Central and 
Northern Europe, and from thence to America. 

So in America the greatest advances toward civiliza- 



D ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

tion made by the natives were in the best climates, — 
upon the table-lands of Mexico, Central America, and 
Peru. 

With the exception of Egypt, and a narrow strip of 
country along the Mediterranean Sea, the continent ©f 
Africa was not highly favored. Mostly situated in the 
torrid zone, in climates generally sickly and unfavorable 
to longevity, as well as to industry, it is almost destitute 
of navigable rivers, and of seas, lakes, and interior water- 
courses. These obstacles to progress were so great that 
the natives had not sufficient intellect to overcome them ; 
and hence neither the first vestige of civilization, nor the 
first element of progress, ever originated in those unfa- 
vored regions. 

The elements of European progress and civilization 
originated spontaneously in Assyria and Egypt, Phoenicia 
and Greece, Persia and Hindostan, and were collected 
and increased, systematized and diffused by the Romans. 
A peculiar written language and system of civilization 
also sprang up spontaneously in China and Japan ; and 
some slight germs sprang up on the table-lands of Mexico, 
Central America, and Peru. But nothing of the kind 
ever originated on the continent of Africa, south of 
Egypt and the Desert of Sahara. 

English officers and colonists have carried the arts of 
civilization to the Cape of Good Hope, Sierra Leone, and 
some other British colonies upon the coast of Africa ; 
colored emigrants from the United States have carried 
the arts of civilization and the elements of progress to 
Liberia, upon the western coast of Africa ; and, if the 
interior or any part of Africa south of the Desert of Sa- 
hara ever be civilized, it must be done by emigrants from 
America and Europe, carrying with them the industrial 
arts, the manners and customs, the laws and institutions 
of civilized nations. 

Sec. 8. Artificial elements and agents, means and instru- 
ments of progress, enumerated. 

Among the numerous artificial elements and agents, 
means and instruments of the progress of peoples and 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 7 

nations, the following may be regarded as the most im- 
portant : — 

ist. The art of taming and subjecting animals to do- 
mestic use. 

2d. The art of smelting ores, of working copper and 
iron, and converting them into instruments of industry. 

3d. Mechanical inventions and instruments of indus- 
try long in use. 

*4th. The arts of making earthen and stone ware, and 
bricks. 

5th. Commerce and navigation. 

6th. Fixed habitations, and private property in lands, 
as well as in chattels. 

7th. A proper division of employments. 

8th. Symbolical and pictorial representations and hi- 
eroglyphics, used as substitutes for written language. 

9th. The letters of the alphabet, and the construction 
of words and written language. 

10th. The organization of governments, and the form- 
ation of written laws for the protection and good order 
of society. 

nth. Schools and academies, colleges and universities, 
public libraries, and associations for scientific and literary 
purposes. 

1 2th. An industrial education, and habits of indus- 
try and economy. 

13th. The natural and medical sciences, knowledge of 
the powers of nature, of the elements of the material 
world, and how they can be used to promote the welfare 
of man. 

14th. The principles of geometry. 

15th. Moral science, private and public virtue, patriot- 
ism and public spirit, and some degree of martial spirit 
also. 

1 6th. The Bible, and the principles of the Christian 
religion. 

17th. Arabic figures, and the rules of arithmetic. 

1 8th. Municipal corporations, organized under char- 
ters, general laws, or by usage and prescription. 

19th. Corporations for religious and educational, litera- 
ry and scientific, charitable and philanthropic purposes. 



8 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

20th. The organization of capital and labor, by means 
of private corporations. 

2 1 st. The mariner's compass. 

22d. Movable types for printing, the printing-press, 
and paper. 

23d. The arts of making and blowing glass, making 
instruments and utensils of glass, and glass windows. 

24th. The telescope, and a correct knowledge of the 
solar System. 

The discovery of America. 

25 th. Saw-mills. 

26th. Clocks and watches. 

27th. Toleration in matters of religion. 

28th. Civil, religious, and political liberty. 

29th. The principle of non-intervention. 

30th. The elective representative system of legislation. 

31st. The system of legislation by the concurrent ac- 
tion of two separate legislative bodies. 

3 2d. Political science, and sound principles of law and 
government. 

33d. The federal, dual, and co-ordinate system of 
government. 

34th. Sound maxims of law, and sound principles and 
maxims of morals and political economy. 

35th. Post-offices and post-roads, and the regular trans- 
mission of mails. 

36th. Wagon and carriage roads, and bridges. 

37th. Canals, and improvements in the navigation of 
rivers and water-courses. 

38th. Public common schools. 

39th. Chimneys and stoves. 

40th. The steam-engine. 

41st. Machinery for rolling and slitting iron and other 
metals. 

42d. Machinery for carding, spinning, and weaving. 

43d. Banks, banking, and bills of exchange. 

44th. Insurances and insurance companies. 

45 th. Savings-banks. 

46th. Gunpowder and fire-arms. 

47th. Military science, military schools, and the organ- 
ization and discipline of men for military purposes. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 9 

48th. Coal-gas, and the art of making it. 

49th. Penitentiaries and workhouses. 

50th. Asylums for the insane, for the deaf and dumb, 
and for the blind. 

51st. Steamboats, and steam navigation. 

5 2d. Railroads. 

53d. Locomotives. 

54th. Electric telegraphs. 

55 th. Labor-saving instruments and machinery, in- 
vented since the American Revolution. 

56th. Schools of the natural and mechanical sciences, 
and commercial colleges. 

57th. Express companies. 

58th. The arts of vocal and instrumental music, paint- 
ing, and sculpture. 

59th. The arts of daguerreotyping and photographing. 

60th. The art of boring Artesian wells. 

6 1 st. A wise public policy. 

Sec. 9. Comments on the artificial elements of progress 
designated. 

The elements of progress, which I have enumerated, 
constitute the principal means and instruments, and the 
active causes of the advancement and progress of peo- 
ples and nations. They are numbered for the purpose 
of convenient reference ; and places are assigned to 
the artificial elements, in most cases, in accordance with 
the order of their supposed origin. The most of them 
originated in suggestions of the human mind. Some of 
them are discoveries ; some of them are inventions ; 
others are developments or growths ; while others, again, 
partake of the joint character of inventions and develop- 
ments blended together. As in mechanics one invention 
suggests another, so one law or^feature of an institution 
often suggests others to the human mind. Laws are 
developed from the practice of distinguished individuals, 
which grow into usages and customs among the people, 
and are finally embodied in written laws. Language 
and forms of government, and nearly all human laws and 
institutions, originated in that manner. They are partly 

1* 



10 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

the natural development of society and business, and 
partly the invention of individuals, — of law-givers and 
statesmen, of public writers and savans. 

I. Domestic animals. 

To tame and subject to domestic uses horses and cat- 
tle, sheep and camels, fowls, dogs, and some other ani- 
mals, is the first step towards civilization. Shepherds 
are often well off, and comparatively rich. Such was the 
patriarch, Abraham, and his descendants, Isaac and Ja- 
cob. The use of domestic animals greatly increases the 
comforts of a people, and raises the shepherd vastly above 
the hunter and the fisherman. 

2. The ail of smelting ores, and working metals. 

Without metallic instruments it is impossible to fell the 
forest, to plow, dig up, or in any effective manner to cul- 
tivate the earth, or to construct dwellings, other than the 
rudest kind of huts. The invention of the art of smelt- 
ing ores — of working copper and iron, and of converting 
them into tools and instruments of labor — lies at the 
foundation of all effective human industry. Without 
them, man is always a mere savage or barbarian. 

3. Mechanical inventions and instruments of industry long 

in use. 

The invention of simple tools and instruments of in- 
dustry follow in their natural order, after the discovery 
and invention of the mode in which copper and iron 
could be smelted and worked. Their invention before 
the use of either copper or iron was impossible. Hence 
inventions are in some measure developments of society ; 
that is, they follow discoveries in natural science, the 
developments of ideas, and the increase of human knowl- 
edge. 

Some few rude tools and implements of industry were 
at first invented, and their use and defects suo-o;ested to 
the minds of ingenious men improvements, and the in- 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. II 

vention of other instruments ; and the process of im- 
provement went on from age to age, until the present 
high state of perfection in mechanical and agricultural 
tools and machinery was attained. Inventions succeeded 
each other in their natural order, — partly as developments 
of the results of new ideas suggested to the mind of 
man, and partly as mental creations or inventions pro- 
duced by means of trials and experiments, observations 
and deductions, combinations and human reasoning. 

Inventions are impossible except in their natural or- 
der. It would have been impossible to invent a steam- 
boat or locomotive engine until after the steam-engine 
was invented, and brought to a considerable degree of 
perfection ; and it would have been impossible to invent 
the electric telegraph until great advances were made in 
chemical science, and electricity was known and well 
understood. Nor was it possible to discover petroleum 
hundreds of feet below the surface of the earth, and 
bring it to the surface, until after the art of boring Arte- 
sian wells was brought to a tolerable state of perfection, 
and the steam-engine and pump were both brought into 
use. The same remarks apply also to salt-wells. Nearly 
all the most complicated tools, machines, and machinery, 
except the watch and clock, have been invented during 
the last hundred years, — since the mathematical and 
natural sciences were brought to a high state of perfec- 
tion, — and the most of them would have been previously 
impossible. 

4. Earthen and stone ware, and bricks. 

Among the earliest arts known to man were the arts 
of moulding and baking earthen and stone wares and 
utensils, and making bricks for building. Sun-dried 
bricks, and earthen ware dried and partially baked in the 
sun, were used before such articles were baked in kilns ; 
but all such articles were baked with fire, at an early 
period, by all the distinguished nations of antiquity. 
The Tower of Babel was built of burned brick. Bricks 
were also made and baked with fire, as well as sun-dried, 
by the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians, before the dis- 



12 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

covery of America ; and sun-dried bricks are still used 
in Mexico. Bricks were extensively used for building, 
by all the ancient nations. 

Until a very recent period, the Chinese excelled all the 
nations of Europe in the manufacture of beautiful and 
durable porcelain ware. Before the use of glass, when 
tin was very little known, and before the invention of 
the process of casting hollow iron ware, earthen and 
stone wares were much more extensively used than they 
are now, and for numerous purposes for which glass, tin, 
and iron wares are now used. Hence, the very great 
importance of pottery to all the ancient nations ; but, 
though partially superseded by substitutes, yet earthen 
and stone wares, as well as bricks, will ever be exten- 
sively used, and for a great variety of purposes. Their 
use is indispensable to the industry, and to the conveni- 
ence and comfort of man. 

5. Commerce and navigation. 

Commerce and commercial intercourse between indi- 
viduals, peoples, and nations, including navigation, come 
next after the introduction of the mechanic arts, and 
proceed hand in hand with them and with the division 
of employments. The former could not precede the lat- 
ter. Commerce is the great stimulant to industry, and 
hence it is a powerful element of progress and of civili- 
zation. 



6. Fixed habitations and private property in lands ; as well 
as in chattels. 

Though wandering tribes of shepherds, dwelling in 
tents, may accumulate some movable property in their 
herds and tents, apparel and merchandise, and are eleva- 
ted above and enjoy more comforts than savage tribes, 
that subsist mostly by hunting and fishing, yet their 
wealth is trifling and their comforts few, when compared 
with the people of industrial and highly civilized nations. 
The cultivation of the earth constitutes the chief source 
of subsistence and wealth in almost every country ; and 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 1 3 

it is impossible to bring a country into a good state of 
improvement, so as to render it very productive and 
make agriculture successful and profitable, without fixed 
habitations and private property in lands. 

A wandering people, who frequently change their 
places of residence, feel no interest in the soil, — no in- 
terest in erecting buildings and fences, in draining and 
irrigating, in planting orchards and vineyards, or in 
making roads and other permanent improvements for 
future, as well as present use. Fixed habitations and 
individual property in lands are necessary to stimulate 
self-interest to make such improvements, without which 
a people must remain stationary in their pursuits, and in 
their condition. Fixed habitations, property in lands, 
and permanent improvements are as necessary in min- 
ing, smelting, and working the metals; and in manufac- 
tures of all kinds, as they are in agricultural pursuits. 

A small society of fanatics may live together, work, 
and have their property in common on the communist 
principle ; but such a thing is not practical on a large 
scale, and even on a small scale it has never been pro- 
ductive of any permanent good. That communism tends 
to check selfishness, is very true ; and it is equally true 
that it destroys one of the principal stimulants to indus- 
try. Selfishness finds its greatest field of activity in 
industry, and in the accumulation of private property. 
God has planted selfishness in the human heart as a 
stimulus to industry and frugality, economy and provi- 
dence for the future ; and, when not carried to excess, it 
is a virtue as well as a blessing. 

We cannot say fixed residences and private property 
in lands are instruments of progress in the same sense 
as agricultural implements are instruments of industry ; 
but they are conditions of society which are necessary 
to human progress, without which it is impossible for a 
people to make much progress in industry, wealth, and 
civilization. We may, therefore, properly regard them 
as elements of progress. 



14 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 



7. A proper division of employments. 

There never was, and never can be, much industry in 
any country, without commerce to give it life and ac- 
tivity ; nor can commerce exist without a division of 
employments, which furnishes a variety of products suited 
to the wants of society, and renders a mutual interchange 
desirable and advantageous to all parties. 

Nor is it practicable for one person to acquire much 
skill and efficiency in the performance of many different 
kinds of labor. It is by long practice at one employ- 
ment or business, that the muscles and the mind become 
trained to act in concert, whereby habits of thought and 
action are formed in unison, and skill is acquired. A 
division of employments is therefore necessary to the 
industrial efficiency, to the commercial activity and pros- 
perity, and to the progress in wealth and material well- 
being, of a nation or people. 

Though a division of employments is necessary among 
the people of every nation, yet the division should not be 
the same in all countries ; on the contrary, the division 
of employments in every country should be in accord- 
ance with the natural products and resources of the coun- 
try, the wants of the people, and the demands of com- 
merce. It is idle for a people to attempt to produce 
what is not reasonably well adapted to the soil and cli- 
mate of their country ; and it is equally disadvantageous 
for them to produce a large surplus of any commodity, 
beyond what they need for consumption, and is wanted 
by the commercial world, and at the same time neglect 
to produce what they really need, and find it difficult to 
purchase and pay for, for the reason that they cannot 
realize much from the sale of their own products. Hence 
the importance of the adaptation of the division of em- 
ployments in every country, to the wants of the people, 
and to the demands of commerce, as well as to the natural 
products and resources of the country. 

It is idle to produce very much of any product beyond 
what is wanted. Markets, a demand for the products 
of their industry, are what every people want, most of all 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 1 5 

things, to stimulate their industry. A commercial de- 
mand gives price and value to the products of labor, and 
to labor itself. Markets are the mainsprings of industry ; 
and hence the importance of such a division of employ- 
ments, that the wants of every class of people in a coun- 
try will contribute to furnish markets for every other 
class ; and that their employments may be so diversified, 
(particularly in temperate and cold climates,) that they 
may be able to supply all their wants as far as is practi- 
cable, with but little dependence upon distant nations. 
Hence the importance of securing the domestic market 
for the benefit of domestic industry, so far as it can be 
supplied by domestic products. These rules do not ap- 
ply to hot climates, where the wants of the people are 
very limited, and where they produce a few great staples, 
which are not perishable, and will bear transportation 
thousands of miles to distant markets. In such climates 
and countries the people do not need a very great diver- 
sity of employments. 

Industry and prosperity depend on commerce ; com- 
merce depends on a division of employments ; and a pro- 
per division of employments depends in a great meas- 
ure, in many countries, upon the security of the prin- 
cipal part of the home market, to the products of do- 
mestic industry. Foreign imports should be limited to 
the amount of exports, to the ability of the people to pay 
without embarrassment, and without incurring much for- 
eign debt. 

These illustrations serve to show how different things 
are mutually dependent on each other ; how commerce, 
markets, and a proper division of employments are all 
necessary to the industry, prosperity, and progress of 
peoples and nations ; and how a proper division of em- 
ployments may be regarded as an element of progress. 
(See on this subject vol. I, pp. 136, 273, and 291 to 306.) 

8. Hieroglyphics, symbols, and pictures. 

Hieroglyphics, or the representation of things by pic- 
tures and symbols, were used, to some extent, as a sub- 
stitute for written words, before the invention of letters. 



I 6 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

They were a great aid to the memory, and served as a 
means to record and preserve imperfect and vague 
memorials of things and common transactions. But 
they were not sufficient to form records of laws, nor 
details of transactions of any kind ; and yet they formed 
stepping-stones to the invention of letters. 

Each letter was at first probably a symbol of a thing, 
and at the same time represented the most prominent 
sound in the name of the thing itself; and a combina- 
tion of several letters was finally made to represent all 
the sounds in the name of the thing. Words were thus 
formed, one step in the progress suggesting another. 

9. Letters and written language. 

Letters are supposed to have been invented in Egypt, 
nearly two thousand years before the Christian era. 
Without letters and a written language, knowledge and 
information can be communicated only by oral state- 
ments and pictures or symbols ; and it is impossible to 
perpetuate it to much extent, except by tradition, which 
is a very imperfect mode, depending on the uncertainty 
of human memory, without any records to refer to, to 
correct its errors and supply its defects. 

So long as communities remain ignorant of letters 
and a written language, the results of experience and 
experiments, of observation and discovery of distin- 
guished individuals, which are not reduced to immediate 
practice, and perpetuated as practical arts or usages, 
must die with the person. As he can communicate it by 
parol to only a few persons, and has no means of making 
a record of it, the most of it must necessarily be lost. 
Schools without letters or books were never thought of; 
and hence each succeeding generation would commence 
as ignorant as their predecessors, and any considerable 
degree of progress would be impossible. 

The ancient Egyptians had hieroglyphics and picto- 
rial inscriptions, which are still exhibited on the pyra- 
mids ; and the Egyptians and Phoenicians, the Assyrians 
and Babylonians, the Persians and Hindoos, all had let- 
ters and written languages at a very early period. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 1 7 

While without letters and a written language, peoples 
exist only in a barbarous or semi-barbarous state, a few 
families of common origin being united as a tribe or 
clan, having a few rude customs as a substitute for laws. 
It is impossible to prescribe and establish laws without 
records and a written language ; and without laws it is 
impossible to have any regular administration of justice, 
or any established form of government. In fact it is 
impossible to maintain a military organization without a 
written language, laws, and records. 

A nation cannot exist without records, laws, and a 
military organization. Nothing but a mere tribe or clan 
can exist in such a condition. Hence we may properly 
regard the invention of letters and a written language, 
as very near the starting-point of human progress and 
civilization, as the commencement of the accumulation 
of knowledge, and as the element which led to the 
development of human laws and organizations, and the 
formation of governments and nations. 

io. Governments and written laws. 

Nations cannot exist without organized governments 
and established laws. Anything like statute laws and 
constitutions cannot exist without a written language, 
and the means of recording laws, ordinances, and public 
transactions. Without all such agencies, peoples are 
generally divided into petty tribes ; and it is usually 
impossible to unite sufficient numbers under one juris- 
diction, to be worthy of the name of a nation. The 
organization of governments, and the formation of writ- 
ten laws for the protection and good order of society, 
seem necessarily to precede, as a general rule, the exist- 
ence of any union and political organization of peoples 
worthy of being called a nation. Perhaps the ancient 
inhabitants of Egypt, who built the pyramids, and had 
learned the use of pictures and symbols as a substitute 
for words, may be regarded as an exception to the gen- 
erality of this conclusion ; but that does not disprove 
the rule. It is true that a few petty tribes of Indians in 
the colony of New York, united in a league, prior to our 



1 8 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

Revolutionary War, were, in common parlance, called 
the six nations of Indians. But calling small tribes 
nations did not make them so in fact, contrary to the 
proper and generally received meaning of the word 
" nations." 

11. Schools and colleges, public libraries, and associations 

for literary and scientific purposes. 

Schools, academies, and colleges, literary and other so- 
cieties, and public libraries, all follow the organization of 
governments and the adoption of statute laws for the pro- 
tection of society, and never precede them. 

Schools and colleges are necessary to develop the intel- 
lectual faculties of youth, to furnish them with much 
useful knowledge, and the keys to unlock the vast store- 
house of science and information contained in books, to 
enable them to avail themselves of the experience of 
others, to avail themselves of the learning and science 
and wisdom of the age, and of past ages. Savages, bar- 
barians, and semi-civilized tribes and peoples without a 
written language, never have such agencies. 

No people can be properly called civilized, unless they 
have a written language, written laws, an organized gov- 
ernment, schools and institutions for the instruction of 
youth, and also books and libraries. 

12. An industrial education, and habits of industry and 

economy. 

The necessaries and comforts of life can be produced 
only by industry ; and wealth can be accumulated only 
by industry and economy. Without economy and great 
industry, a people must generally remain comparatively 
poor. That habits of industry and economy constitute 
an element of progress, must be obvious to the common 
sense of every intelligent person. 

No people will be very industrious unless they are 
trained up to labor from youth, unless they have an in- 
dustrial education, and acquire habits of industry when 
young. The want of an industrial education, and habits 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 19 

of indolence and improvidence, have ever been insupera- 
ble obstacles to progress of any kind, among nearly all 
the Indian tribes and nations of America ; and the same 
causes have been one of the principal obstacles to prog- 
ress among every people living in the torrid zone. It 
is true, that a very low grade of intellect has been an in- 
superable obstacle to much progress among the negroes 
and colored races of the torrid zone ; but indolence has 
been one of the principal causes which have kept them 
in a feeble state of intellect. Their brains and intellects 
would have been more developed and improved if they 
and their ancestors for centuries had been industrious, 
and exercised their minds, the greatest part of the time, 
to improve their condition. 

The industrial education of the slaves of our Southern 
States, together with their observation of the manners 
and customs of, and their intercourse with, a highly cul- 
tivated and intelligent people, aided greatly in developing 
their brains and minds, and their moral character, and 
raised them to a mental and moral condition very much 
above that of the free negroes of Africa. 

Even a good scholastic education, without an indus- 
trial or business education of any kind, and without hab- 
its of industry, is often of but little value. It only serves 
to make literary drones. 

1 3. The natural sciences. 

The natural sciences and chemistry, which have been 
more fully developed, . and, in some measure, perfected 
during the present century, have had a very great in- 
fluence in promoting the industry and welfare of peoples 
and nations. The efficient working in mines and metals 
in the present age, depends greatly upon the natural 
sciences. Such is the case also with the science and 
practice of medicine ; and agriculture has been brought 
to a state of perfection in many countries, which it never 
could have attained without the natural sciences. 



20 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 



14. The principles of geometry. 

Similar remarks apply to the principles, theorems, and 
demonstrations of geometry. The arts of surveying, 
navigation, engineering, and the whole science of astron- 
omy are based upon them. Man could make but little 
progress without them. 

15. Virtue, patriotism f and public spirit. 

No government can long exist without both public and 
private virtue, patriotism and public spirit among the 
rulers, and the people also. If selfishness and selfish 
ambition and avarice generally reign supreme in both 
rulers and people, without 'regard to the general good, 
the nation will soon be distracted with factions and dis- 
sensions, intrigues and conspiracies, insurrections and 
civil wars. Such causes hastened the decline and fall of 
the ancient Roman power ; and such causes have dis- 
tracted and nearly destroyed Mexico, the negro govern- 
ments of Hayti, and many other countries. 

Some degree of martial spirit is also necessary, to 
maintain the rights and the dignity of a nation ; but an 
excessive degree of military spirit, blended with ambition 
for conquest and dominion, is apt to lead nations into 
unnecessary wars for slight and frivolous causes, and 
sometimes on false pretenses, and is often productive of 
deplorable consequences. It was one of the principal 
causes of the wicked revolutionary movement and great 
rebellion in our Southern States. 



16. The Bible, and the principles of the Christian 
religion. 

That the Bible and the principles of Christianity have 
had a very great influence upon the temporal welfare and 
progress of the human family, is attested by history, — by 
comparing the Christian with the Mahometan and Pagan 
nations of the earth. Many advantages have arisen from 
ecclesiastical organizations, and also many evils, includ- 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 21 

ing much despotism, persecution, and cruelty, and many- 
cruel and devastating wars, both civil and international. 
Some of the laws and customs of the Israelites have also 
had a pernicious influence upon modern nations ; but no 
evils have ever resulted from the pure principles of Chris- 
tianity. 

17. Arabic figures, and the rules of arithmetic. 

Under the system of the Romans and other ancient 
nations, of using letters to express number, it was diffi- 
cult and laborious to keep accounts, either public or pri- 
vate, to any considerable extent, and with accuracy. 
They had no process of either adding or subtracting, 
multiplying or dividing, except in the mind, by a purely 
mental process, which is unfitted for large and compli- 
cated numbers. Hence the incalculable value to the hu- 
man family of Arabic figures, and the rules of arithmetic 
based upon them. These figures and the art of distilla- 
tion are the only inventions of importance which civil- 
ized nations have ever derived from the Mahometans, to 
compensate for the numerous evils which Mahometanism 
has inflicted upon the human family. 

1 8. Municipal corporations, organized under charters, gen- 
eral laws, or by usage and prescription. 

By virtue of laws and organizations the free men of 
cities and villages, towns and boroughs in Great Bri- 
tain and the United States, and in some other countries, 
select their own officers, and administer their own local 
and domestic affairs, subject only to the general laws of 
the State or nation, and to the jurisdiction of the courts 
of law, in case they exceed or abuse their powers ; but 
not subject to the control or interference of the execu- 
tive department of the government. 

Municipal corporations were common among the Ro- 
mans more than two thousand years since. They grew 
out of the liberal customs of the Romans as conquerors, 
in allowing the inhabitants of cities, provinces, and coun- 
tries conquered by them, to retain their own municipal 



22 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

organizations, and their own local laws and customs, and 
to elect their own officers, to administer their own local 
affairs, independent of the consuls, and of the executive 
government of Rome. Municipal corporations were not 
known among the Greeks, Persians, Egyptians, nor any 
of the nations of Asia or Africa. They were never 
known in any Mahometan country, nor in any Pagan 
country except Rome. 

The corporations of London and other cities and bor- 
oughs of England, played a distinguished part, and exer- 
cised a powerful influence in the government during the 
Middle Ages, and from that period to the present time. 
Such was the case also with the corporate cities of the 
Netherlands, and a few free cities of Germany and Italy ; 
but in France, Spain, the kingdoms of Germany, and 
other countries of Europe, no such thing as a municipal 
corporation (in the English and American sense of those 
words) has existed since the fall of the Western Roman 
Empire. Those countries have municipal governments, 
but no municipal corporations, with power to elect their 
own officers, and to perpetuate their own existence, with- 
out the action or the interference of the chief executive 
of the State or nation. 

The election of the officers of municipal corporations, 
and their management, exercise the minds of the people 
with public affairs, and accustom them to the exercise of 
political power. Such corporations are schools for the 
practice and development of the rights and usages which 
pertain to political liberty, and form bulwarks for the 
maintenance of the rights of the people. They are ac- 
tive elements of liberty, progress, and civilization. 

19. Corporations for religions and educational, literary 
and scientific, charitable and philanthropic purposes. 

Religious corporations were formed in the fourth and 
fifth centuries, after the Christian religion became the 
religion of the Roman Empire. Their organization grew 
out of the voluntary association of individuals to form 
churches. This organization was finally sanctioned by 
usage and law ; and they became legal corporations, and 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 23 

authorized to acquire and hold property, make contracts, 
and manage their own secular affairs in their corporate 
name. 

Corporations for the management of colleges and sem- 
inaries of learning, public libraries and hospitals, grew 
up in like manner ; and numerous charters were granted 
for such purposes during the dark ages, and from that 
time until the present, in all civilized countries. But no 
such corporations exist in Mahometan or Pagan coun- 
tries. Schools were often founded and managed by gov- 
ernments, as well as by individuals, among the Greeks 
and other ancient nations, and also among the Mahom- 
etans and Pagans ; but corporations were never organ- 
ized for the management of schools and seminaries of 
learning, except among the Romans, and among Chris- 
tian nations. Without the advantages of corporations to 
give perpetual succession to the managers of such insti- 
tutions, schools, hospitals, and libraries, founded by pri- 
vate enterprise, would generally die with the person that 
founded them. For want of corporations there are no 
great institutions of the kind in Mahometan and Pagan 
countries, except the few that were founded and are 
maintained by the governments of the countries in which 
they exist. 

Corporations form the principal handmaids of schools 
and education, libraries and missionary movements, and 
of all public charities in modern times. 

20. The organization of capital and labor, by means of 
private corporations. 

Associations for private enterprises originated with, 
and were common among the Romans ; but corporations 
for such purposes were unknown until long after the fall 
of the Western Roman Empire. Private corporations 
for carrying on trade, commerce, and navigation, origin- 
ated in the Middle Ages, and grew out of guilds and 
associations of tradesmen, formed for mutual protection 
and the promotion of the private interests of the mem- 
bers. They eventually obtained charters as corporations 
from the feudal sovereigns of Europe, to enable the as- 



24 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

sociatiohs to acquire, hold, and transfer real, as well as 
personal estate, in their corporate name, to secure a per- 
petual succession of managing officers, and to exempt 
the members thereof from individual liability for the 
debts of the company. 

Comparatively few charters of incorporations to pro- 
mote private enterprise were granted in England or any 
country of Europe, prior to the discovery of America : 
but many such charters were granted after that great 
event. In the eighteenth century, great numbers of 
companies were incorporated in Great Britain for various 
purposes, — for making canals, and improving the naviga- 
tion of rivers ; for making turnpike roads and bridges ; for 
banking and insurance business ; and, more recently, for 
manufacturing and mining purposes, and for making and 
operating railways and electric telegraph lines. 

Private corporations, properly regulated by law, are of 
great consequence to any and every country ; but more 
particularly to new countries, where there are but few 
capitalists, and very little surplus capital. No great enter- 
prises can be carried on without corporations, except by 
the government. They furnish the only means of organ- 
izing capital and labor for great private enterprises, in 
such a mode as to secure a constant succession of man- 
aging officers, of talent, experience, and practical ability, 
who are capable of making them successful and advan- 
tageous to the stockholders, as well as to the laborers, 
employees, and to the public. They may very properly 
be regarded as one of the most important inventions of 
modern times ; vastly more important than any mechan- 
ical invention ever made, except, perhaps, the single in- 
vention of the steam-engine. They constitute one of 
the leading features and characteristics, which distinguish 
the most advanced nations of the present age, from the 
ages when the Greeks and Romans were in their glory. 

As private corporations are organized and their busi- 
ness carried on independently of the executive head of 
the state or nation, and enjoy the advantages of perpetual 
succession, they constitute bulwarks of liberty against 
the encroachments of arbitrary power, and, to some ex- 
tent, a security also against revolution and anarchy. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 2$ 

All the canals, railways, and telegraph lines in the 
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and in 
their colonies and dependencies in all parts of the world, 
were made and are owned and operated by incorporated 
companies. The canals of New York and Pennsylvania, 
Virginia and Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, were made and 
are owned by the States in which they are situated ; the 
railroads and telegraph lines in the United States were 
made and are operated by incorporated companies ; the 
canals on the continent of Europe and in China were 
all, it is believed, made by the governments of the coun- 
tries in which they are situated, and such is the case 
also with the most of the railways and telegraph lines. 
But some of the railways in France, Belgium, Germany, 
and some other countries, were made and are owned and 
operated by incorporated companies. 

Private corporations are the most effective instruments 
ever invented by man, to organize capital and labor, to 
promote industry and make it effective for enterprises 
which partake of a public character, to furnish good 
investments for capital and the surplus earnings of the 
laboring classes, and to encourage frugality and the ac- 
cumulation of wealth and capital. 

Municipal and private corporations, and corporations 
for religious and educational, literary and charitable pur- 
poses, all form bulwarks of liberty, and institutions for 
educating the people in the practice of self-government. 

21. The mariners compass. 

The mariner's compass was invented about the year 
1300. It was soon applied to land-surveying, as well as 
to the navigation of the ocean. It has been of great value 
to the human family, in rendering the navigation of the 
ocean practicable and safe, and in aiding to make accu- 
rate surveys of lands. Before its invention, it was impos- 
sible to navigate the ocean to any considerable extent. 
Navigators were in the habit of coasting along the shore 
in small vessels of from five to a hundred tons. The 
navigation of the then civilized world was mostly confined 
to the Mediterranean, Black, Red, and Arabian seas, the 



26 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

Persian Gulf, and the great rivers, bays, and water-courses 
connected with those seas. 

The mariner's compass, and the knowledge of the true 
figure of the earth, and of meridians and parallels of lati- 
tude, render it practicable to keep records of voyages, so 
that very nearly the same track can be pursued between 
the same ports, by every vessel. Before the invention of 
the compass, these things were impracticable ; and hence 
it was impossible to discover the continent of America, 
except by an accidental voyage, which could not be easily 
repeated ; and therefore no practical results of much im- 
portance could spring from it. The discovery of the 
eastern coast of New England is supposed to have been 
made by some Danish voyagers in the tenth century ; 
but no practical results arose from it, by reason of their 
inability to extend such voyages, and to repeat them with 
success and safety. 

But soon after the discovery of the Island of Hayti, by 
Christopher Columbus, the ocean swarmed with adven- 
turous and ambitious navigators, from Portugal and Italy, 
France and England, as well as from Spain : and, within 
about a quarter of a century, not only the coasts of Ca- 
raccas, Brazil, and Florida, and other parts of the conti- 
nent of America, were discovered and visited, but the 
continent of Africa, and the w T orld, also, were circumnavi- 
gated ; a passage to India, via the Cape of Good Hope, 
was discovered, and the Straits of Magellan were also 
discovered and passed through. These great events, 
which have revolutionized the commerce and industry of 
the world, followed each other in quick succession. They 
followed the invention of the compass and the progress 
of ideas, as effect follows cause ; and it was impossible 
for them to precede the use of the compass, and the 
march of ideas. The circumnavigation of the earth 
finally undermined the ecclesiastical prejudices of the 
age against the Pythagorean theory of the universe, and 
firmly established the system in the public mind. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 27 



22. Movable types, the printing-press, and pap, 



er. 



Movable types for printing, and the printing-press, 
were invented and brought into use in the fifteenth cen- 
tury. The art of manufacturing paper from linen and 
cotton is supposed to have been invented in the Eastern 
Roman Empire, or in Egypt, in the eleventh or twelfth 
century. Paper made of linen was first introduced into 
France, England, and Italy, early in the fourteenth cen- 
tury. Previous to that time, parchment made of sheep- 
skins was used for deeds, charters, and records ; and 
paper made of papyrus was used for most other pur- 
poses. 

It would have been impossible to have the newspaper, 
or to multiply books and periodicals to any considerable 
extent (even by means of movable metal types and the 
press), without cotton or linen paper. The importance 
of cotton and linen paper, movable metal types, and 
printing-presses, are all dependent on each other ; and 
the arts which brought them into use were gradually 
improved and perfected pari-passu. It is unnecessary to 
dilate upon the immense importance of each and all these 
things to the human family, and to the progress of civili- 
zation, by diffusing information, science, and the Holy 
Scriptures, among the people, and facilitating business 
and the acquisition of knowledge. 

23. The arts of making and blowing glass, making in- 
struments and utensils of glass, and glass windows. 

The arts of making and blowing glass, and making 
beads, ornaments, bottles and drinking-vessels of glass, 
were invented at an early period, and known to the Egypt- 
ians, Assyrians, and Phoenicians, several centuries before 
the Christian era. They were introduced into Rome in 
the time of Augustus Caesar ; but the articles made were 
generally so small, and at so great expense, that the arts 
themselves were not of much practical value until they 
were greatly improved many centuries afterwards. 

It is said that a few glass windows have been discov- 



28 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

ered in the ruins of Pompeii, which furnish the only evi- 
dence that glass was ever used for windows, until stained 
glass was used in some fine churches in the seventh cen- 
tury. Glass windows were so expensive, however, that 
they were used only in churches, palaces, and the most 
expensive houses of the wealthy nobility, until the twelfth 
century ; and they did not come into general use in farm- 
houses and workshops in England, until the early part 
of the seventeenth century. 

The art of making plate-glass by casting, was probably 
invented by the Venetians, and introduced into Paris, and 
also into England, in the seventeenth century. But plate- 
glass was so expensive that it was not much used in win- 
dows, until since the year 1820. The panes of glass used 
in windows, during the first thirty years of the present 
century, were generally small and thin. It required mil- 
lions of experiments, and a period of more than two 
thousand years, to bring all those arts to their present 
high state of perfection. 

A little reflection will enable the reader to realize the 
great importance to man of glass windows, and of the 
various utensils and instruments made of glass. They 
have contributed largely to promote his comfort, to grat- 
ify his curiosity, to increase his industry, and to advance 
the cause of astronomy and all the natural sciences. 
Without glass windows, it was impossible for mechanics 
to do much labor in their workshops in cold or temperate 
climates in cold weather. It was also impossible to in- 
vent the telescope, the microscope, spectacles, or any 
class of magnifying glasses, until the art of making glass 
had been brought to a high state of perfection. 

The arrangement of magnifying glasses in the tele- 
scope, has been the means of extending the vision of man 
into the realms of space, hundreds of millions of miles 
distant from the earth ; of bringing to view worlds and 
systems of worlds previously unknown to him ; of dis- 
covering and watching all the planets and smaller bodies 
in our solar system, and determining their relative posi- 
tions and movements with accuracy. It has extended 
and magnified our conceptions of the universe, and of 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 29 

the great Creator, and aided in perfecting our knowledge 
of astronomy. 

The microscope has rendered great service in perfect- 
ing many departments of natural science, by magnifying 
and bringing to view exceedingly small animal and vege- 
table organs and fibres, animalcules, and particles of mat- 
ter too minute for the natural eye to discover. Glass 
jars are indispensably necessary to the success of many 
experiments in chemistry ; and it would have been im- 
possible to bring the science of chemistry to its present 
high state of perfection without them. We may there- 
fore very properly place the arts of making and working 
in glass, and making the various glass utensils and in- 
struments now in use, among the most active and effi- 
cient elements and causes of human progress. 

24. The telescope, and the knowledge of the solar system. 

The telescope, invented in Holland about the year 1600, 
has been the great handmaid of astronomy, and the 
means of carrying astronomical science to so high a de- 
gree of perfection. The telescope and the microscope 
have also been the means of perfecting many branches 
of natural science — by introducing processes of examin- 
ation, otherwise beyond the reach of man's senses and 
faculties. 

The revival of the Pythagorean theory of the universe 
(that the earth is round, and moves around the sun) sug- 
gested to Christopher Columbus the idea of finding a 
passage to India by sailing west, and going around the 
world. Such an idea never could have been conceived 
by a man who had not a proper conception of the figure 
of the earth, and of the order of the solar system. 

The ancient Chaldeans, Assyrians, and Egyptians 
learned something of astronomy from observation of 
the heavenly bodies, and could calculate eclipses (though 
not with accuracy) before they learned the true order of 
the solar system. Navigation is greatly dependent upon 
astronomy, which has been brought, during the last 
two centuries, to a wonderful degree of perfection, and 



30 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

has had a powerful influence upon the progress of ail the 
natural sciences. 

The discovery of America. 

Previous to the discovery of America there was no 
tropical country, nor any great country accessible to the 
Europeans, without great difficulty, which enjoyed a 
warm climate and a rich soil, where sugar and coffee, 
cotton and rice, spices and tropical fruits could be culti- 
vated. Nor were there any rich mines of silver and 
gold in the Old World. The discovery of America opened 
a vast field of enterprise and employment for the acqui- 
sition of all those things. It has revolutionized the com- 
merce and industry of the world, and opened the door 
for the establishment of new systems of law — for the de- 
velopment, growth, and maturity of civil, religious, and 
political liberty, and the federal system of government. 
All these things have promoted the progress of science 
and education, industry and commerce, religion and good 
morals, and been of incalculable value to mankind. 

25. Saw-mills. 

According to "The New American Cyclopaedia," saw- 
mills worked by water power were in use at Augsburg, 
in Germany, as early as the year 1322. One was in ope- 
ration in the Island of Madeira in 1420, and in Norway 
in 1530. Saw-mills were introduced into Holland and 
France early in the sixteenth century, and into England 
and America in the seventeenth century. 

The great importance of saw-mills, and their influence 
upon the progress of industry, are shown in the first vol- 
ume of this work, chap, viii., sect. 5, p. 185. 

26. Clocks and Watches. 

Clocks and watches are modern inventions. Neither 
the Greeks, the Romans, nor any of the ancient nations 
had any instrument for the accurate measurement of 
time, and no portable instrument of any kind for its 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 31 

measurement. The first invention of a timepiece, con- 
taining the leading principles of a clock, is supposed to 
have been made in Italy, as early as the ninth century ; 
but the first instruments of the kind were so rude and 
imperfect as to be of comparatively little value. Im- 
provements were made from time to time, until the clock 
became, early in the fourteenth century, a timepiece of 
great importance. 

Watches were first made in Germany, in the fifteenth 
century ; but they were very rude timepieces, until after 
they were improved in the seventeenth century. 

Clocks and watches tend to promote regularity, punc- 
tuality, and industry. They are useful to the laborer, 
very important to the business man, and indispensable 
to the safe and successful operation of railroads. They 
are therefore of great importance to all classes of peo- 
ple, and have contributed very much to promote human 
progress and civilization. Every civilized people, in this 
age, make a very general use of both clocks and watches. 

27. Religious toleration. 

Toleration is not complete, but partial religious liberty. 
Toleration includes freedom of conscience, freedom of 
opinion in religious matters, and freedom to exercise and 
enjoy religious worship, differing from the established 
church, • in private houses, but not in churches, public 
buildings, nor in the streets or fields. 

Toleration was first established in Holland, in the six- 
teenth century ; in France, by the Edict of Nantz, in 
1598 ; in Germany, by the thirty years' civil war, and the 
Treaty of Westphalia, in 1648 ; in England, by the Long 
Parliament, before the usurpation and tyranny of Crom- 
well, and finally by the revolution of 1689. 

Complete religious liberty was first established in the 
colonies of Rhode Island and Maryland, and afterwards 
in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Religious toleration 
was established in all the colonies by an act of Parliament, 
soon after the revolution of 1689. Complete religious 
liberty was established by the American Revolution in 
all the States (except Massachusetts and Connecticut) ; 



32 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

and it was finally established in Connecticut in 1818, and 
in Massachusetts in 1833. 

The Edict of Nantz was revoked, and ecclesiastical 
despotism re-established in France, in 1685, which en- 
couraged James II. to make an effort to re-establish it 
in Great Britain. The persecutions of the Protestants 
in France, and the despotic acts and pretensions of King 
James, alarmed the Protestant people of Great Britain 
and Ireland, and excited a revolution, which drove James 
from the country, and established William of Orange, 
and Mary, his wife, upon the throne of the United King- 
dom, and induced the passage of an Act of Parliament, 
to establish free toleration in matters of religion, in all 
the dominions of Great Britain. 

Ecclesiastical despotism was effectually overturned, 
and free toleration established in France, by the French 
revolutions of the eighteenth century, and the wars of 
Napoleon growing out of them. The same causes over- 
turned the Popish Inquisition, undermined the power of 
the Pope, and weakened the despotic power of the Church 
in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and all the countries of South 
America. 

All have the same equal right to enjoy their own opin- 
ions unmolested. Toleration is based on charity and 
respect for the liberty and rights of others. Intolerance 
springs from bigotry and fanaticism, self-conceit and self- 
righteousness, enthusiasm and zeal, which can endure no 
opposition. 

Intolerance extends to politics and political measures 
and policies, as well as to religious matters and doctrines. 
There may be, and often is, great intolerance of opinion 
and feeling, and also great social intolerance and perse- 
cution, when the law allows perfect toleration. This is 
to be deplored, but cannot be avoided. 

A consciousness of being right, and an anxiety to save 
souls, very generally impresses ecclesiastical bodies with 
a sense of duty to use all their power, to crush out what 
they regard as error and heresy, evil and vice. If they 
were infallible in their wisdom, and always right, all 
would be well. But, unfortunately, to err is human ; and 
honest zeal and enthusiasm always render men blind to 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 33 

their own errors. Selfishness, ambition, and pride of 
opinion, are also often blended with zeal, which tends to 
increase mental blindness, and to render it doubly dan- 
gerous. Hence great and unchecked ecclesiastical power, 
generally menaces civil as well as religious liberty. 

28. Civil, religious, and political liberty. 

Despotism in every form, whether monarchical or aris- 
tocratic, military or ecclesiastical, is an enemy to human 
progress. The elements of progress mostly originate in, 
and are developed by, the activities of the human mind ; 
but they can be conceived and matured only by free and 
unshackled minds, and not by slaves. 

Civil liberty can never be complete in any country, 
until religious liberty is also complete, — until the mind 
is unshackled by ecclesiastical domination, and governed 
by law and reason, by an enlightened conscience, and by 
the pure principles and precepts of the Christian religion. 
Great progress has been made in religious liberty during 
the last three hundred and fifty years, and the elements 
of progress in that direction are still active. 

The experience of the world shows, that civil and reli- 
gious liberty are in some measure inseparable ; that a full 
measure of civil liberty is impossible without religious 
liberty also, or, at least, religious toleration ; and that 
political liberty is of very little value to a people, unless 
they enjoy a full measure of civil and religious liberty, a 
high degree of intelligence, and some public virtue. Ig- 
norance, bigotry, and intense selfishness, are not consist- 
ent with political liberty, and the proper exercise of the 
powers of self-government. 

Religious liberty should precede or go hand in hand 
with political liberty ; else the latter will be of no practi- 
cal value, and self-government will be a name only, a de- 
lusion, and lead to frequent struggles between rival chiefs 
and factions, under the influence of the clergy, and the 
landed aristocracy. This is shown in the history of 
Mexico and the South American republics. 

At the beginning of the sixteenth century, there was 
scarcely a particle of civil liberty in Europe. Civil as 

2* 



34* ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

well as ecclesiastical despotism reigned everywhere, 
throughout the Old World. The Reformation, com- 
menced by Martin Luther in Germany, may be regarded 
as much the beginning of civil and political, as of relig- 
ious liberty. The civil and religious wars in Germany, 
the Netherlands, Great Britain, and France, planted the 
germs of the civil and religious liberty now enjoyed by 
the people of those countries. The English revolution 
of 1688, and the American revolution, were as necessary 
to establish the civil and religious liberty of the Ameri- 
can people, as the latter was to inaugurate their political 
liberty and national independence. 

Neither civil nor political liberty seems to be consist- 
ent with ecclesiastical power in political matters. No 
matter what the form of ecclesiastical government may 
be, whether Hierarchal, Episcopal, or Congregational, 
if ecclesiastical bodies, representing a majority of the 
whole people, assume even advisory authority in civil and 
political matters, and thus dictate what legislative policy 
should be adopted, their people soon carry their dicta- 
tions and policies into practical effect. As the same 
persons in such cases that constitute a religious majority 
form also the political majority of the country, their po- 
litical and religious views and action are blended to- 
gether ; and their tyranny often becomes as inexorable 
and oppressive as that of a hierarchy. The governing 
power in such cases is practically a theocracy, as was 
that of the Puritan colony of Massachusetts Bay, prior 
to the revolution of 1688. The ecclesiastical influences 
by which Mexico and many other countries have been 
governed, have been of a similar character. 

The measures and policies of a country should be dis- 
cussed, matured, and adopted by statesmen, legislators, 
and jurists, and not by bishops, nor by ecclesiastical con- 
ventions or assemblies ; and the less the latter have to 
do with political measures and matters of government, 
the better it is for the people, and for the cause of liberty 
and good government. 

The cause of civil and religious liberty has been stead- 
ily progressing for more than three centuries past, and is 
still advancing. Religious toleration is established in 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 35 

France, and in nearly all Italy. By the Catholic emanci- 
pation bill, passed by the British Parliament in 1830, 
civil and political rights and privileges were restored to 
the Catholics of Great Britain and Ireland ; religious lib- 
erty has been established in the Republic of New Gren- 
ada, and recently proclaimed in Mexico by the Emperor 
Maximilian ; some degree of religious toleration is at- 
tained in all the countries of South America ; and the 
religious tyranny of Spain and Austria has been greatly 
relaxed during the present century. No nation has ever 
been highly prosperous under the dominion of ecclesias- 
tical despotism '; and hence liberty may be regarded as a 
necessary element of human progress. 

The Pope of Rome has lost nearly all his temporal 
power, and the probability is that he will lose the whole 
of it soon, cease to be a temporal sovereign, and become 
only the nominal head of the Catholic Church, and that 
the Catholic Church in each country will become sub- 
stantially independent, and be reorganized, in many re- 
spects similar to the Episcopal and Methodist Churches 
of the United States. When such change shall take 
place, the Catholic Church will be no more dangerous to 
civil and religious liberty than the Episcopal or the Meth- 
odist, the Presbyterian or the Congregational Church. 
And such is now the case with the Catholic Church in 
the United States. Constituting but a small minority of 
the people in each of the states, its weakness makes it 
humble and conservative ; and it showed its loyalty dur- 
ing the great rebellion. 

Complete civil and religious liberty seems to be con- 
sistent only with the division of the people of a country 
into several Christian sects, where each sect is in the 
minority. Where any one sect constitutes a majority of 
the whole people, that sect generally controls the gov- 
ernment according to their own standards of opinion and 
conscience ; and the minority hold their rights and liber- 
ties by a very uncertain tenure. Such was the case in 
Massachusetts and Connecticut, until the Orthodox Con- 
gregationalists fell into a minority. 



2,6 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 



29. The principle of non-intervention. 

The principle of non-intervention has numerous appli- 
cations, but always nearly the same meaning. Whether 
applied to individuals or communities, states or nations, 
it means, attend to your own business, and do not inter- 
meddle with the affairs of others. Intermeddling can be 
justified only in extreme cases — to protect the weak from 
wrong and oppression. The principle of non-interven- 
tion lies at the foundation of personal and civil, religious 
and political liberty, of national independence and inter- 
national law ; of the right of every people and commu- 
nity to regulate and administer their own domestic affairs 
in their own way ; and of the federal system of govern- 
ment. 

In the fourth century the Christian clergy conceived 
the erroneous idea — pregnant with tyranny and persecu- 
tion — that uniformity of opinion in religious matters, 
and uniformity of religious worship, should prevail 
throughout the empire ; and that all differences of opin- 
ion upon such subjects should be crushed out by the 
government, as dangerous heresies. This was the origin 
of nearly all the religious persecution, and of the most 
inexorable tyranny, which ever afflicted the human family. 

God's works are infinitely various ; and man is so con- 
stituted and situated that the opinions of mankind are 
almost infinitely various. Uniformity of opinion upon 
religious matters, or any other subject, is impossible ; 
and for a church or government to require it, is an ab- 
surdity, and wicked tyranny. Every adult sane person 
has a right to act according to his own judgment, and 
the dictates of his own conscience, provided he does not 
infringe the rights of others ; and every effort to restrain 
such right, is wrong and tyrannical. 

Dissimilarity of opinions and manners, of customs and 
religious exercises, will not produce dissensions and con- 
troversies, violence and war, unless one party is deter- 
mined to interfere with the rights and the freedom of 
action of the other. Conflict of opinion will never pro- 
duce serious difficulty, so long as each is charitable and 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 37 

tolerant, respects the rights of others, and carefully avoids 
an intermeddling spirit. It is conflict of purpose and 
action, which leads to collisions and violence, aggressions 
and wars. The principle of non-intervention is the agent 
of peace and tranquillity, and of liberty also. This is 
proven by the experience of the people of the United 
States in religious matters for more than two centuries, 
and in civil and political affairs during nearly a century. 
It is proven also by the history of the ancient pagan 
world, in religious matters, prior to the fourth century of 
the Christian era. 

Differences of opinion are almost infinitely various 
upon religious and philosophical, social and political, and 
many other subjects ; and yet they very seldom produce 
any serious difficulties between individuals, in countries 
where religious liberty or religious toleration exists, and 
freedom of speech is allowed. Dissensions which dis- 
turb the peace and tranquillity of a people or country, 
and sometimes excite insurrections and civil wars, are 
produced by conflicts of action — by legislation and laws, 
and the attempt to execute laws, which infringe the rights 
of some class or portion of the people. Differences of 
opinion lie at the foundation of all such legislation ; but 
mere differences of opinion seldom produce any hostile 
action between citizens, until one party or the other suc- 
ceeds in getting their views incorporated into laws, the 
execution of which, sooner or later, excites opposition and 
collision, between the parties aggrieved and the officers 
of the government. 

Such is very generally the cause which disturbs the 
domestic peace and harmony of nations. Non-interven- 
tion by the government in matters of religion, or relig- 
ious toleration, and the protection of all sects by law, is 
indispensable to the peace and tranquillity of a nation, 
unless the people are nearly all of one religious faith and 
sect. Nothing short of non-intervention by the govern- 
ment, in religious concerns, secures complete religious 
liberty, and removes all causes of dissatisfaction with the 
action of the government in such matters. 

Laws of a proper character, which accord with the con- 
stitution and nature of man, and with the condition, and, 



38 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

in some degree, with the customs of a people, are elements 
of order and progress. But unjust laws — laws which un- 
necessarily restrain the liberties of the citizen ; laws 
which conflict with the manners and customs, or with the 
amusements of great numbers of the people ; and laws 
which restrain the religious exercises and privileges of 
any class — are elements of disoi'der ; for their execution 
excites disaffection and dissension, and tends to excite oppo- 
sition and insurrection. The less the government inter- 
feres with the manners and customs, the amusements jor 
the industry of the people, the better the peace and tran- 
quillity of the country will be preserved. The govern- 
ment should regulate the domestic relations, and the de- 
scent of property, administer justice, punish crime, re- 
strain vice and gross immorality, and preserve order ; but 
should be very careful to interfere as little with the man- 
ners and customs, and with the amusements and pursuits 
of the people, as is consistent with a moderate degree of 
good morals. All attempts to enforce rigid morals by 
legal enactments and severe police regulations, are gen- 
erally productive of more evil than good. Amusements 
and practices which become pernicious and vicious only 
when carried to excess, should be checked and restrained 
by parental authority and by moral suasion, rather than 
prohibited by law. 

The government should never interfere in matters of 
religion, except to protect each sect in their religious 
rights to worship God according to their own opinions 
and faith, and to incorporate religious societies, to enable 
them to manage advantageously their secular concerns, 
and to hold limited amounts of property for religious 
purposes. 

The government should not interfere with the man- 
ners and customs, the habits and amusements of the 
people, except so far as is absolutely necessary to restrain 
licentiousness and vice, betting and gambling. Mar- 
riages and divorces should be regulated by law, education 
encouraged, and the sale of intoxicating liquors to mi- 
nors, and to persons of intemperate habits, may be pro- 
hibited ; and the mode and the time of the sale thereof 
may be very properly regulated by law, with the view of 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 39 

preserving order, raising a revenue, and checking their 
excessive use. The experience of the last thirty years 
in the United States, shows that any further interference 
by law with the liberty of the citizen, is generally produc- 
tive of more evil than good. 

The principle of non-intervention was unknown to 
the Greeks and Romans, and to all the ancient nations 
of the earth. It was first conceived by persons strug- 
gling for religious liberty, and grew out of the great 
reformation of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 
but was more fully developed by Roger Williams, the 
founder of Rhode Island, than by any of his prede- 
cessors. 

There was nothing like a system of international law 
known in the history of the world, until after the devel- 
opment of the principle of non-intervention, which con- 
stitutes its chief corner-stone. 

In the federal system of government, like that of the 
United States and Switzerland, the principle of non-in- 
tervention applies so far that each state retains its own 
sovereignty and independence for all local and interior, 
police and municipal purposes ; and the powers and sov- 
ereignty granted to the federal government are limited 
to national and external, international and inter-state 
purposes. The principle of non-intervention, as recog- 
nized in our federal system, is an element of self-govern- 
ment ; and it is impossible for the latter to exist, in great 
countries, without the former. 

The principle itself has exercised great influence upon 
the civilized world during the last two hundred years, in 
promoting the cause of civil and religious liberty, peace 
and tranquillity, Christianity and civilization. It may 
therefore be very properly regarded as an element of 
progress. 

30. The elective representative system of legislation. 

In absolute monarchies, the laws are enacted by the 
king or emperor, generally upon the report and advice 
of some of his chief officers, a commission of jurists, or 
a legislative council of some kind. Such was the mode 



40 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

of legislation in imperial Rome, and such is now the 
mode in Russia, Austria, and many other countries. In 
aristocratic republics, like Tyre and Carthage in ancient 
times, and Venice, Genoa, and Florence in modern times, 
the laws are enacted by an aristocratic council. 

In Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and other states of ancient 
Greece, there was a senate or council, which drafted and 
proposed laws, and they were passed upon and adopted 
or rejected by an assembly of the people. In republican 
Rome, assemblies of the people in the city of Rome, and 
the Roman senate, both claimed and exercised the right 
to enact laws, each independently of the other. That 
system produced strifes and controversies for supremacy 
between the two conflicting enactments, and great con- 
fusion. 

Both the Grecian and Roman systems of legislation 
were fitted only for a city and a small district of country 
around it, and were totally incapable of being adapted 
to the numerous wants and exigencies of a great nation. 
The Grecian system kept the Grecian states in almost 
constant wars, until they were finally conquered by Philip 
of Macedon. The Roman system proved an entire fail- 
ure, and resulted in the overthrow of the republic, when 
the dominions of Rome became extensive. The repre- 
sentative system, whereby all parts of a country, and 
its people, may be fairly represented and participate in 
making laws, is the only one adapted to just and en- 
lightened legislation for a great nation. 

When in process of time the inhabitants of Italy and 
the neighboring countries were admitted to the privileges 
of Roman citizens, they could vote for officers, and par- 
ticipate in legislation only in the city of Rome, which, to 
most of them, was a privilege that they could not avail 
themselves of. The election of consuls, praetors, and all 
the high officers of the republic, being held at Rome 
only, naturally fell into the hands of the senators, people, 
and mob of that city ; the whole legislation of the re- 
public fell also into the same hands ; and the people of 
the country, and of other cities, had no participation 
therein. 

That centralized system of power, and the strifes be- 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 4 1 

tween the plebeians and the patricians, led to violent con- 
flicts, gross abuses, shocking corruptions, and great op- 
pressions of the people of the country and of the pro- 
vinces, which produced wide-spread disaffection, and 
contributed largely to the overthrow of the republic, 
and to the civil wars and massacres which followed. 

Among the Israelites, Moses instituted a council of 
seventy elders, in which the supreme legislative and judi- 
cial powers of the Hebrew nation were vested. That 
council was composed of the patriarchs, who were the 
heads of the great families of the several tribes. Though 
they were not chosen directly by the votes of the people, 
yet they were representative men, and fair representa- 
tives of the people. That council constituted the first 
truly representative legislative body of which history 
gives us any account. 

The system of representation in the British Parlia- 
ment, during the latter part of the middle ages, and in 
the States-General of Holland in the sixteenth and sev- 
enteenth centuries, was borrowed from the synods and 
councils of Christian churches. The first writs, order- 
ing the sheriff of each county to summon two good and 
discreet knights of his county, whom the freemen of the 
county shall have chosen for that purpose, to meet the 
king in parliament, appear to have been issued in the 
year 1258. Representatives from counties to meet the 
king in parliament, had been previously selected by the 
county courts, in several instances, in pursuance of a 
summons from the king ; but the first case of an elec- 
tion of such representatives by the freemen of counties, 
appears to have been in 1258, in the 38th year of the 
reign of Henry III. 

At length (as stated by Hallam in his " Middle Ages"), 
on the 1 2th of December, 1264, in the 49th year of 
Henry III., while he was a captive in the hands of the 
Earl of Leicester, "writs were issued in his name to all 
the sheriffs, directing them to return two knights for the 
body of their county, with two citizens or burgesses for 
every city or borough contained within it." Again he 
says, "almost all judicious inquirers seem to have ac- 
quiesced in admitting this origin of popular representation? 



42 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

From that time forward, the representation of the peo- 
ple in parliament, became an established custom of the 
government. It marked an era in the history of legisla- 
tion, for it introduced a new principle — the elective prin- 
ciple — into the formation of legislative bodies. That 
principle has been since developed into a grand and no- 
ble system, which has been of incalculable importance in 
promoting the cause of justice, enlightened legislation, 
and popular liberty. It may be very properly regarded 
as the first and leading principle of the British Constitu- 
tion, and the principal bulwark of English liberty. 

The system of elective representation, and the elec- 
tive franchise, on which it is based, have both been ex- 
tremely defective in England, where it originated ; it 
was greatly improved in the Anglo-American colonies, 
and still more improved in these United States, where 
representation is based on the principles of justice — on 
the number of inhabitants in each county, district, or 
state ; which does equal justice to all parts of the coun- 
try. It goes far in allaying discontent, inducing submis- 
sion to law, and producing peace, tranquillity, and order. 
It is probably the greatest improvement in government 
which man has ever devised ; and, imperfect as the sys- 
tem still is, it may be regarded as one of the most effect- 
ive elements of modern progress and civilization. 

31. The system of legislation by the concurrent action of 
two separate legislative bodies. 

The precise time when the lords and commons of 
England separated, and first organized as two distinct 
houses, is unknown. There is reason to believe, how- 
ever, that the house of commons sat separately from the 
house of lords from the origin of the former as a legisla- 
tive body, elected by the people. Hallam says that " the 
commons sat at Acton Burnell, in the nth year of Ed- 
ward I (a. d. 1283), while the upper house was at Shrews- 
bury." 

That practice introduced a new principle into the gov- 
ernment of England — the principle of legislation by the 
separate action and concurrence of two distinct legisla- 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 43 

tive bodies, in addition to the action and approval of the 
king. Hallam says, in his " Middle Ages," " the second 
constitutional principle established in the reign of Ed- 
ward III. was, that the king and two houses of parlia- 
ment, in conjunction, possessed exclusively the right of 
legislation. Laws were now declared to be made by the 
king, at- the request of the commons, and by the assent of 
the lords and prelates? 

The Greeks and Romans, Israelites and Syrians, Car- 
thaginians and Venetians, had their senates and councils ; 
but the system of enacting laws by the concurrence of 
two distinct legislative bodies, originated in England, and 
was previously unknown in any country on the earth. 
It not only marked an era in English legislation, but also 
in the legislation of the world ; but it was not followed 
by any other nation as a precedent, until after about five 
hundred years had elapsed. 

The legislative power of the Swiss Confederation was 
vested in a diet of but one chamber, composed of two 
deputies from each canton, each canton having one vote 
only. The confederation never had two legislative bo- 
dies, until Napoleon Bonaparte formed a constitution for 
them in 1 802, by which a senate and a national diet were 
established. By the present constitution, adopted in 
1848, the legislative power is vested in a national council, 
consisting of deputies elected by the people, and a council 
of states, like our federal senate, composed of two mem- 
bers from each canton, elected by the legislature thereof. 

The states-general of the seven united provinces of 
the Netherlands (or Holland), formed but one legislative 
body, in which each province was represented, and had 
but one vote. 

The Anglo-American colonies each had a legislature 
or council, composed of only one house, or chamber. 
Under the advice of the congress of the united colonies, 
New Hampshire, South Carolina, Virginia, New* Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and North Carolina, 
severally formed constitutions in 1776, New York and 
Georgia in 1777, and Massachusetts in 1780. The legis- 
lature established by each of those state constitutions, 
except those of Pennsylvania and Georgia, consisted of 



44 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 






two branches ; and the constitution of the United States, 
formed in 1787, consists in like manner, of a senate and 
house of representatives. 

These American constitutions were the first ever form- 
ed, in which the English system of legislation — by the 
separate action and concurrence of two legislative bodies 
— was adopted. Experience having shown the conserv- 
ative and salutary influence of that system of legislation, 
the legislative assemblies of all the states are now com- 
posed of two distinct bodies. 

The national assembly of France formed a constitution 
in 1789, uniting democratic institutions with the mon- 
archy, and vesting the legislative power in a single cham- 
ber, called a legislative assembly, to be elected for two 
years, by nearly universal suffrage. 

The first and only legislative assembly under that con- 
stitution met October 1st, 1791. The most violent revo- 
lutionists soon found the constitution and the assembly 
not sufficiently radical for their purposes, and imme- 
diately after the insurrection of August 10th, 1792, under 
their urgent demands, the assembly made a decree sus- 
pending the official powers of the king, directing the 
holding of a national convention, and the immediate elec- 
tion of members to the same. 

Members were elected, and the national convention 
met September 21st, 1792, and immediately amended 
the constitution, established universal suffrage for all 
adult males, and almost universal eligibility for office ; 
assumed all the legislative and executive powers of the 
nation, and retained them in their own hands, and exer- 
cised them for more than three years. The same con- 
vention tried the king, condemned him to death, and 
executed him ; established revolutionary tribunals, waded 
through blood and carnage, and spread terror through- 
out France for three years ; and becoming alarmed at 
their own career, they finally formed in September, ] 795, 
a new and more conservative constitution, in which the 
legislative power was vested in two houses — a council of 
five hundred, entrusted with the sole power of originating 
laws, and a council of ancients, with the power of pass- 
ing or rejecting them, without any power to amend. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 45 

The unfortunate revolutionary experience of France 
had so clearly shown the necessity of a legislature com- 
posed of two houses, as a check to hasty legislation, pas- 
sion, and radicalism, that all the constitutions formed for 
that country since that time, have provided for such a di- 
vision of the legislative power. 

The system of legislation by the concurrent action of 
two separate legislative bodies, tends to secure careful 
examination, discussion and deliberation, of the provis- 
ions of every bill passed, in two committees, and by 
different sets of men in the two houses, who see things 
from different standpoints, take different views of nearly 
all measures proposed, and represent more fully the dif- 
ferent interests of all classes of people. It tends to 
check hasty legislation, and the influences of passion, 
prejudice, and radicalism ; to diminish the predominat- 
ing influence of a few partisan leaders ; and often defeats 
the scheming and intrigues of cliques and factions, and 
prevents the success of outside influences of interested 
parties and their agents. 

32. Political science, and sound principles of law and gov- 
ernment. 

The government and laws under which a people live, 
have great influence upon their industry and character, 
and also upon their condition and progress. No people 
can be governed well, without a good system of govern- 
ment, a good code of laws, both civil and criminal, and a 
good system of jurisprudence for the administration of 
justice ; all of which should be adapted to the intelli- 
gence and industry, the character and condition of the 
people. It is impossible for a nation to establish a good 
system of law and government, unless their statesmen, 
and a sufficient number of their people to form an en- 
lightened public opinion, have a knowledge of the prin- 
ciples upon which law and government should be based. 
Their system of law and government can never rise above 
their grade of intelligence. Hence political science, and 
a knowledge of sound and correct principles of law and 
government, constitute elements of human progress. 



46 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

Improvements in laws and institutions make slow pro- 
gress, even in temperate climates, under the most fa- 
vorable circumstances, and among the most enlightened 
people— not the slightest germ or element of progress 
in any thing, having ever originated anywhere in the tor- 
rid zone. 

Though laws and institutions are to a considerable ex- 
tent growths or developments, that grow and expand 
with the industry and commerce, the experience and 
intelligence of a people, yet they are in some measure 
manufactures also— the materials of which they are com- 
posed being moulded into form and consistency, deficien- 
cies supplied, and new forms, modes, and processes in- 
vented, by the suggestions of human reason. Though to 
some extent growths, they are never developed, and never 
grow among an ignorant people ; but require the warming 
influence of intelligence to develop them. Hence the 
legislator and the judge, in forming and applying them 
in practice, should be guided by the principles of natural 
law and justice, sound morals and correct principles of 
social philosophy ; to the end that all classes of people, 
males and females, adults and minors, may have their 
rights properly understood and protected. Sound prin- 
ciples are as necessary to produce good laws and insti- 
tutions, as good seed and proper cultivation are to the 
growth of good grain or good fruits, or good stock is to 
the propagation of a superior class of animals. 

Roman jurisprudence in civil matters, has been the 
great fountain to which the jurists of Great Britain, 
France, and all the continent of Europe have resorted, 
and from which they have for centuries, borrowed sound 
principles of law. The leading principles of the equity 
system of England and America, of the laws regulating 
the domestic relations and the descent of property in 
many countries of Europe and America, as well as those 
of the Napoleon code, were mostly borrowed from Ro- 
man jurisprudence. 

But, unfortunately, sound principles of government are 
of slower and later growth, than principles and maxims 
of law. While the Roman law was attaining in many 
respects a high degree of perfection, the government was 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 47 

imperial, despotic, and often tyrannical and oppressive, 
and the country was frequently involved in strifes be- 
tween rival factions and aspirants to the imperial throne, 
as well as to the high places in the ecclesiastical hier- 
archy. Hence the principles of political despotism, ec- 
clesiastical despotism, and the tyranny of the slave sys- 
tem, were all nicely blended with laws founded on the 
principles of justice, equity, and natural law. It has 
required time, revolutions and wars to separate them — 
to eliminate the evil principles, and to establish laws and 
governments upon the principles of natural law and jus- 
tice ; and yet the process of improvement has been going 
on gradually, more than three hundred years. 

33. The federal \ dual, and co-ordinate system of gov- 
ernment. 

The principal improvement in matters of government, 
appears to have arisen from the confederate and federal 
systems, the first germs of which originated in ancient 
Greece, several centuries before the Christian era. The 
first development of the confederate principle in modern 
Europe, was in Switzerland. The three cantons of Switz, 
Uri, and Underwalden formed a confederacy for mutual 
defence and security as early as the year 1308, threw off 
the German yoke, and established their independence 
after many hard-fought battles. Lucerne joined the con- 
federacy in 1332; four other cantons in 135 1 to 1352; 
and five others between that time and 15 13. The con- 
federacy, thus increased to thirteen cantons, remained 
the same nearly three centuries, and until the govern- 
ment was overturned by invading armies from France 
in 1798. 

Modern liberty was born among the mountains of an- 
cient Helvetia, under the flag of the Swiss confederation, 
and the principles of confederate union — formed for na- 
tional purposes and external security — each canton re- 
taining not only its own laws and government, but its 
sovereignty entire. 

The Dutch of the Netherlands, or Holland, being sorely 
oppressed in the sixteenth century, borrowed from the 



48 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

Swiss and the ancient Greeks the principle of confedera- 
tion, improved upon the system, and established upon its 
basis a firmer union, and a strong federal government, 
much better calculated for regulating commerce, raising 
revenues, prosecuting war successfully, promoting the 
industry of the people, planting colonies, and building 
up a great commercial and powerful nation. 

The congress of the American colonies adopted sub- 
stantially at first, the original Swiss system of confedera- 
tion, under which they made the famous declaration of 
independence, and carried on the revolutionary war to a 
successful termination. But when peace came, and all 
external danger had passed away, that weak system of 
confederation was found insufficient to collect revenue, 
pay the debts of the country, and save the states from 
internal dissensions — for want of power to regulate com- 
merce, and to lay and collect taxes. And hence the form- 
ation of a firmer union, and a stronger federal govern- 
ment, more similar to the Dutch confederacy, was ef- 
fected by the adoption of the constitution of the United 
States in 1788. 

In the original Swiss system, the several cantons re- 
tained their entire sovereignty — the bond of union being 
a mere league or treaty of alliance — the general diet hav- 
ing no sovereign power over the people or the cantons. 
And such was the character of our union and congress, 
prior to 1789. 

In our federal system, established by the adoption of 
the constitution of the United States, the sovereignty of 
the several states is divided between the federal and state 
governments ; complete external and national sover- 
eignty, and supreme power for the regulation of foreign 
and inter-state commerce, and levying taxes for national 
purposes, is conferred on the federal government, leaving 
the administration and sovereignty in all interior, mu- 
nicipal, and domestic matters, to the state governments. 
Our system is neither a league, nor a consolidated union, 
with an undivided sovereignty in the central government 
at Washington, but a dual system of co-ordinate govern- 
ments, each sovereign within its proper sphere ; and 
each a mere usurper when it steps beyond its' sphere. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 49 

The American people very generally believe that our 
federal system is the best of all governments — to secure 
liberty, with order and tranquillity, and to promote the 
general welfare. But they want no central despotism at 
Washington over the interior and domestic matters of 
the states, under the specious pretence of union, and the 
sovereignty of the national government. 

Our federal dual system of co-ordinate sovereignties, 
seems to be the best adapted of all others to the promo- 
tion of liberty and law, self-government and human pro- 
gress, by multiplying experiments in matters of domestic 
legislation and administration, and giving effect to the 
experiences of every people ; by obtaining external secur- 
ity, and the regulation of foreign and inter-state com- 
merce by the federal government, and allowing the people 
of each state to mould their domestic and municipal laws 
and institutions, as well as their own industry, in accord- 
ance with the climate and products, the condition and 
resources of the part of the country which they inhabit. 

The German Zollverein, or customs union, formed be- 
tween Prussia and the German States, for the regulation 
of foreign and inter-state commerce, is based on the same 
federal principle as our government ; has been in full op- 
eration since January I, 1854, and had the most happy 
influence upon the industry, commerce, and prosperity 
of all the kingdoms and states embraced in the league. 

The Canadas, and other British provinces of North 
America, are about forming a federal union, subordinate 
to the crown and parliament of Great Britain ; from which 
great advantages and happy influences may be expected 
to flow to that hitherto isolated people. In fact, the hope 
that future generations may make progress in liberty and 
law, and in the science of government, depends on the 
extension of the federal principle, on the principle of co- 
ordinate governments, of co-ordinate sovereign powers, 
each sovereign within its proper sphere of action. 

The federal system of government is founded on the 
great principle of non-intervention ; upon the principle 
which denies to one people, state, or nation, the right to 
intermeddle with the domestic concerns of another. That 
great principle forms the chief corner-stone of the inde- 

3 



50 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

pendence of nations, and of the laws of nations also. It 
not only forms the chief corner-stone of our federal sys- 
tem of government, but lies at the foundation of the 
religious liberties of the people. Its observance is es- 
sential to the peace and tranquillity of the world ; and 
if it were not generally recognized, the nations of the 
earth would be constantly at war with each other, and 
the weak would become the prey of the strong. 

It applies, however, only to nations and peoples suffi- 
ciently numerous and advanced in the arts of civilization 
and industry, to maintain with vigor an independent gov- 
ernment. It is not recognized as applying to savages, 
barbarians, half-civilized people, nor to small and weak 
colonies or territories, which are properly under the pro- 
tection and pupilage of the mother country, until they 
acquire sufficient numbers and wealth, to take their places 
among the independent nations of the earth. 

The colored population of our country being very gen- 
erally regarded as an inferior race, any policy which at- 
tempts to force negro equality and negro suffrage upon 
the southern people, is contrary to the principle of non- 
intervention, subversive of the fundamental principles 
upon which our union and federal government are based, 
and must be productive of discord, and may lead again 
to civil war. 



34. Sound maxims of law, and sound principles and max- 
ims of morals and political economy. 

All human laws and usages, all modes and methods of 
industry and business, all inventions and processes, all 
systems of government and philosophy, of religion and 
morals, must originate in the human mind, in mental 
conception, before they can be manifested in outward 
action ; and hence sound maxims and doctrines, fixed in 
the mind, aid in giving direction to currents of thought, 
and in guiding the action of the mind in accordance with 
truth. They also form starting-points from which to 
reason, and landmarks to guide the mind, to give warning 
of error, and to correct its vagaries, idle conceptions, and 
eccentricities. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 5 I 

Maxims are wonderfully suggestive to the human mind, 
and hence they constitute germs of thought and elements 
of civilization, which exercise a vast influence upon indi- 
viduals, and upon the progress of peoples and nations. 

A great number of principles, rules, and doctrines of 
the Roman Civil Law, have been generally received by 
jurists and lawyers in modern times, as maxims of law. 
Such maxims have been shining lights to guide the minds 
of legislators and jurists, counsel and judges ; and have 
exerted a very great and salutary influence in forming 
and moulding, improving and aiding to perfect the juris- 
prudence of England and America, as well as that of 
nearly every country of Europe. 

The principles of government embodied in the cele- 
brated Magna Charta of King John and Henry III., have 
been guides to the legislation and the judges of England, 
from that period until the present time ; and constituted 
the chief corner-stone of the constitution of England, 
and of the liberties of Englishmen. They declared some 
of the most important limitations to the powers of gov- 
ernment ; defined some of the most essential rights of 
the people ; encouraged them to resist the usurpations and 
tyranny of the king ; and probably induced the Petition 
of Rights, and the Bill of Rights, of the seventeenth cen- 
tury. They contributed largely to liberalize and improve 
the government of England, and to make it superior to 
that of France, and other continental countries of Europe. 

The principles contained in those great charters, and 
in the Petition of Rights, and Bill of Rights, constituted 
the germs of the liberties now enjoyed — not only by Eng- 
lishmen, but also by their descendants in America, Aus- 
tralia, and other countries. They have been incorporated 
into the American constitutions and laws, both state and 
national, and form permanent guides to American legis- 
lation. 

The noble moral precepts and proverbs, maxims and 
principles of Confucius, and of Buddhism, have formed 
the only substitutes for true religion, which the people of 
China (with very few exceptions) have ever had. Many 
of those precepts and proverbs, maxims and principles, 
approach the nearest to those of the Scriptures and of 



52 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

Christianity, of any that were ever written by man. 
They have had a very great influence upon that wonder- 
ful people, in imbuing them with the principles of justice 
and benevolence, peace and submission to law ; in re- 
pressing anarchy, gross corruptions, frequent wars and 
plunder ; and in promoting order and industry, economy 
and progress in civilization. 

The Mahometan bible contains no elevating moral pre- 
cepts and proverbs — no animating moral principles and 
maxims — nothing tending to purify the mind, and stimu- 
late it to high moral action, and acts of benevolence ; 
nothing but commonplace remarks, and rules suggested 
by lust and passion, and by gross, unrestrained selfishness. 

The differences between the moral precepts and prin- 
ciples inculcated by Confucius, the great Chinese philoso- 
pher, and those of the Arabian semi-lunatic and pretend- 
ed prophet, may be regarded as the principal cause of the 
present difference in condition and prosperity between 
China and Turkey in Asia. No sufficient cause but 
Mahometanism can be assigned for the present degrada- 
tion and paralyzed condition of Turkey ; and it is impos- 
sible to account for the progress and prosperity of China, 
without assigning much of it to the influence of the noble 
and elevating moral precepts and opinions of Confucius. 

Sound maxims, principles and doctrines of political 
economy and public policy, upon the subjects of taxation 
and revenue, commerce and finance, banking and cur- 
rency, internal trade and public improvements, have great 
influence upon the legislation of a country, and upon the 
action of the people as well as of the government. They 
suggest legislation and measures that tend to encourage 
and diversify industry ; to turn it into proper and profita- 
ble channels ; to adapt it to the condition, resources, and 
wants of a country ; to foster domestic trade, and to 
check excessive imports of luxuries, and such articles as 
come in competition with domestic industry. 

35. Post-offices, Post-roads, and Mails. 

Posts to furnish horses to carriers of information for 
the government, came into use first in Persia, and then 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 53 

among the Romans, many centuries before such a thing 
as a post-office and the transmission of letters in mails, 
were known. Post-offices, and the transmission of letters 
u in mails," first for the government, and afterwards for 
private individuals, originated in France, the latter part 
of the fifteenth century. They were introduced into 
England about the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
tury. 

The mails were at first mostly carried on horseback, for 
want of roads fit for wheeled carriages and wagons. For 
nearly a century the mails were mostly carried, in Great 
Britain and other countries, in post-coaches and wagons ; 
but now they are very generally carried in railroad cars 
and steamers. (See volume I., pp. 497 and 498.) 

Though post-offices were established in the Anglo- 
American colonies as early as 17 10, yet for want of roads 
fit for post-roads, the post-office establishment was very 
limited in its operation until many years after the close 
of our Revolutionary War. Since 1790, the increase of 
the department has been very rapid. 



Statement of the Number of Post-offices in the United States, the 
extent in miles of Post- routes, and the Income of the Department 
annually, at different points : 





Number of 
Post-offices. 


Miles of 
Post-routes. 


Income of the 
Department. 


1790 


75 


1,875 


$37,935 


1795 


453 


13,207 


160,620 


1800 


903 


20,8l7 


280,804 


1825 


5,677 


94,052 


1,306,525 


1850 


18,417 


178,672 


5,552,971 


i860 


28,498 


240,594 


8,518,067 


1865* 




142,340 


14,556,158 



The expansion of the Post-office Department of Great 
Britain, and the increase of its revenues, have been 
almost equally great and rapid. In the year 1763 the 
revenues of the department were only ,£238,999, sterling 

* This was for the year ending June 30, and included the loyal 
States only. 



54 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

money ; in 1820 they had increased to ^1,993,885. Those 
of Ireland, in 1820, were only £197,677. 

At the beginning of the year 1840, postages in Great 
Britain and Ireland were reduced to a uniform rate of 
a penny a letter. At that low rate the revenues of the 
Post-office Department in the United Kingdom have been 
as follows : 

Year 1840 .£1,359,460 

" 1849 2,165,346 

" 1856 2,869,159 

" 1862, ending Sept. 30 3,560,002 

" 1863 " Sept. 30 3,760,000 

The revenues of the Post-office Department of France 
for the year 1862, were 72,400,000 francs — over fourteen 
millions of dollars. 

Nothing marks more clearly and forcibly the distinction 
between ancient and modern times — between Roman 
civilization and the civilization of Great Britain, France, 
the United States, and some other nations, than the 
post-office system ; with its immense expansion and dif- 
fusive influences. It is, in fact, the nervous system of 
the body politic, of the business public, and of the social 
and literary public ; and the bond of union between rela- 
tives and friends at a distance from each other. 

36. Roads and Bridges* 

The Romans made a few great roads for military pur- 
poses, and some paved roads between large cities ; but 
nine-tenths of the roads in Roman times, and in all the 
countries of Europe down to the end of the seventeenth 
century, were fit only for horse and mule paths, and for 
foot passengers. Nearly all goods and products not 
transported by water, were carried on packhorses and 
mules, there being very few roads fit for carrying loads 
on wagons and wheeled carriages. 

Bridges were also scarce, and nearly all the streams 

* The origin, history, and progress of roads, paved roads, and 
turnpike roads, have been given in volume I., p. 499, of this work. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 55 

were either forded or passed by ferries. There are, now, 
more tolerably good wagon roads and bridges in the 
comparatively new State of Michigan, than there were, 
two centuries since, in either Great Britain or France. 

The art of bridge-building has been brought to a high 
state of perfection during the present century, manifest- 
ing the wonderfully inventive genius of man. The Suspen- 
sion Bridge over the Niagara river, below the Falls, that 
over the Ohio river at Wheeling, the great iron railroad 
bridge over the river St. Lawrence at Montreal, and 
many others in our country and in Europe, are truly 
wonderful achievements, and great monuments of mechani- 
cal science and art. All those great structures have been 
made since the year 1850. They mark the great and 
rapid progress of the age. 

The improvement of roads, and the building of bridges, 
mark, with great distinctness, the rapid progress which 
has been made in many countries of Europe, and in the 
United States ; and also the wonderful differences be- 
tween the present age, and the times of the Romans, 
and all periods prior to the eighteenth century. 



37. Canals, and improvements in the navigation of rivers 
and watercourses* 

The Suez Canal in Egypt is in progress, but no great 
canal has been completed during the last thirty years. 

Canals have had great influence in promoting the 
commerce and industry of China, Holland, England, the 
United States, and Canada West. Without the benefit 
of canals, the Netherlands would have been of little value, 
and could have furnished employment and the means 
of subsistence, for less than one-fourth part their pres- 
ent number of inhabitants. Without either the great 
Erie Canal or railroads, the northwestern States, bor- 
dering on the great chain of lakes, would have been 
scarcely worth settling, until the population of the Atlan- 
tic States had become very dense. 

* The origin and progress of canals has been given in the first 
volume of this work, p. 501. 



56 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

Since the invention of steamboats, the improvement 
of the navigation of rivers has been of great consequence 
to our country. 

38. Common Public Schools. 

The origin of public common schools is stated, and 
the importance of education is discussed, in the second 
chapter of this work. The Greeks and Romans, and all 
the great nations of antiquity, had academies and colleges, 
and seminaries of learning, for the education of the 
wealthy classes ; but the system of public common 
schools, established by law, and supported by taxation, 
for the education of the whole people, originated among 
the Presbyterians of Scotland, in the sixteenth century ; 
and was carried into effect the early part of the seven- 
teenth century. The system was borrowed from Scot- 
land by the Puritan colonies of New England ; from 
thence it was transplanted to New York and other States 
early in the nineteenth century, and finally extended to 
all the free States, and to some of the slave States. 

A similar system of public common schools, and com- 
mon school education, was adopted in Holland, Prussia, 
and most of the German kingdoms, including nearly all 
the Protestant nations of Europe ; but no such system 
of education was ever carried into practical effect in any 
Catholic, Pagan, or Mahometan country. 

The system of public common school education, does 
more to develop the intellectual faculties and to en- 
lighten and elevate the laboring classes ; to equalize the 
intellectual capacities and powers of the people of a na- 
tion ; and to enlighten popular opinion, than all other 
causes and agencies — except the press — combined. It 
tends to harmonize the opinions and sentiments, the 
views and aspirations, the manners and customs of the 
people; to soften the asperities of sectarian prejudices ; 
to cultivate good feeling and sociability among all classes 
and races ; to promote union ; and to form a national char- 
acter, approximating to uniformity. Sectarian schools 
have a very different influence — tending to cultivate and 
perpetuate sectarian opinions and feelings, and the preju- 



Which promote progress. 57 

dices of race, and to perpetuate dissensions and divi- 
sions among the people. 

It is the superior common school education of the peo- 
ple of New England and their descendants in other 
States, which has developed, quickened, and strengthened 
their intellectual faculties and powers, enlarged their 
acquirements, made their industry as a people wonder- 
fully effective, been the means of furnishing an extraor- 
dinary number of teachers, and of very active, ener- 
getic, and enterprising business men, and given them 
such a preponderating influence in our country, in pro- 
portion to their numbers. This is one of the principal 
reasons of the great superiority of the laboring classes 
of New England, New York, and several other northern 
States, over the uneducated masses of the white popula- 
tion of the southern States. The other great causes are, 
difference in climate, and slavery. 

A hot climate operates directly on the brain and intel- 
lect ; it also operates indirectly, in generating obstacles 
to education. Excessive heat produces general lassitude 
of both body and mind, stimulates the senses, the pas- 
sions, and the imagination, and leaves the reasoning fac- 
ulties comparatively inert ; while a cold climate tends to 
stimulate the reasoning faculties and the understanding. 
A hot climate disinclines the mind to close application, 
renders it impulsive, and at the same time tends to unfit 
it for much intellectual effort. To educate the people of 
the southern cotton States as the people of New Eng- 
land are educated, may properly be regarded as an im- 
possibility. 

39. Chimneys and Stoves. 

Elevated funnels to carry off smoke, called chimneys, 
are supposed to have been first erected in Italy, in the 
twelfth century. Stoves were not invented until the 
latter part of the seventeenth century. Both were un- 
known to the Romans and other ancient nations. Cast- 
iron stoves were invented the latter part of the eigh- 
teenth century, but did not come into use very much 
until the nineteenth century. (See vol. I. p. 181). 

3* 



58 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

Being without stoves or chimneys, it was impossible 
for the ancients to warm their houses and workshops 
very much. They could be warmed very poorly on the 
wigwam principle — by building a fire in the middle, and 
leaving an aperture in the roof for the smoke to pass out. 
The reader can well conceive the impossibility of me- 
chanics and operatives in factories and workshops, con- 
tinuing their labors in cold climates, during the cold and 
wet seasons of the year, in buildings without stoves or 
chimneys. They might work some — but not very much 
— during a large portion of the year ; and it was impossi- 
ble for them to render their labor very effective. Hence 
mechanical industry and art, before the use of chimneys, 
were mostly confined to warm countries, and much pro- 
gress in cold ones was impossible. 

Here we see, as we have seen in other instances, that 
human progress has a natural order — that it proceeds by 
regular steps and gradations, and cannot proceed other- 
wise. Progress follows a regular succession of steps — 
as one invention follows and is dependent on another, 
and is suggested by its proper antecedent. 



40. The Steam-engine. 

The steam-engine was invented by Thomas Savary, 
of England, in 1698 ; but the original invention was very 
imperfect, and of no very great practical value, except 
as a stepping-stone to other inventions, which were sug- 
gested by its operation.. It was greatly improved by 
the invention of James Watts, about the year 1767, and 
soon brought into extensive use. 

When we consider that the steam-engine works nearly 
all the great coal and copper mines of the world, and 
many of the silver, gold, lead, and other mines also ; that 
it moves nearly all the machinery of Great Britain, France, 
and Holland, and much of that of the United States and 
other countries ; that it moves nearly all the boats and 
vessels that navigate the rivers, lakes, and interior water- 
courses of Europe and America ; also many of the largest 
ships that float on the ocean ; and that it draws all the 
freights and passengers upon the railroads of the world, 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 59 

we shall have some realizing sense of the immense import- 
ance of the steam-engine to the human family, and of 
the wonderful superiority of the present age over the 
ancients, in mechanical and motive power. 

41. Machinery for rolling and slitting iron, and other 

metals. 

Blowing machinery, for working blast furnaces, and 
machinery for rolling and slitting iron and other metals, 
were invented in Great Britain about the year 1780, and 
have been greatly improved during the present century. 
They have proved to be great labor-saving instruments, 
which, with the steam-engine, have increased the pro- 
duction of iron in Great Britain more than fifty-fold. They 
have raised it from about forty thousand tons in 1780, to 
over three million tons annually at the present time, 
(1866). The exports of iron from Great Britain, exclu- 
sive of hardware, during the year 1862, were about 1,500,- 
000 tons, valued at about .£13,770,000 sterling. 

42. Machinery for carding, spinning, and weaving. 

The first spinning machine was invented by Wyatt & 
Paul, in 1738, but, like nearly all first inventions of a 
character entirely new, it was imperfect, and of but little 
practical value, except that its operation suggested to 
other inventive minds, improvements, by which machin- 
ery for spinning was perfected within less than half a 
century thereafter. 

James Hargreaves invented the Spinning-Jenny in 
1767, Richard Arkwright invented the Spinning-Frame 
in 1769, and Dr. Cartright invented the Power-Loom in 
1785. All those inventions were made in England, and 
with some others made about the same time, they enabled 
the manufacturers of England to pick, card, rove, and 
spin cotton and wool into yarn, and weave it into cloth — 
all by machinery — which increased the effective industry 
of factory laborers from five to twenty-fold. 

The steam-engine, and those several classes of machin- 
ery, having been invented in England and first brought 



60 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

in use there, gave the manufacturers of Great Britain 
great advantages over those of all other nations ; and 
still gives them advantages over all but a few nations of 
Europe — where laborers are superabundant, labor cheap, 
and capital abundant — nations which have had the good 
sense to borrow those inventions, and have made extraor- 
dinary efforts to put into extensive use the same classes 
of machinery. Those inventions are also, at the present 
time, and have been since the passage of the tariff of 1842, 
of great utility to the people of the United States ; but 
by reducing the prices of goods, they have undermined 
and destroyed the domestic manufactures of India, 
Turkey, and many other countries ; and their benefits 
have been inappreciable to the nations of Europe, Asia, 
and America, which have not put the machinery itself 
into operation, but import from England, France, and 
Germany, and use the products thereof. 

43. Banks, banking, and bills of exchange. 

It is impossible to carry on commerce, with any great 
facility, without banks, banking, and bills of exchange ; 
and yet all those things were unknown to the Greeks, 
Romans, and other ancient nations. 

The Bank of Venice was the first institution of the 
kind in the world. It originated as early as the year 
1 171. It was a bank of deposit and loans, and employed 
its funds in making loans and in buying and selling bills 
of exchange, as soon as bills of exchange came into use, 
early in the fifteenth century. 

The Bank of Barcelona, in Spain, was established in 
1 40 1 ; the Bank of Genoa entered into operation in 
1407 ; the Bank of Amsterdam was founded in 1609 • 
the Bank of Hamburg in 16 19; the Bank of England in 
1694 ; the Bank of Scotland in 1695 ; the Royal Bank of 
Scotland in 1727 ; and John Law's bank was established 
in Paris, in 1716, under a charter from the King of 
France. Those were the first banks established in 
Europe ; and the Bank of England and Law's Bank were 
the first that issued bank notes as a substitute for coin. 

Law's Bank was purchased by the King, and became 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 6 1 

the fiscal agent of the French government, in the year 
1 71 8. Law organized a great joint-stock trading com- 
pany, known as the Mississippi Scheme, the operations 
of which were connected with the bank. The stocks of 
the bank, and of the Mississippi Company also, being 
transferable, were freely bought and sold, became a 
subject of commerce and of speculation, and were often 
received in payment for property as a substitute for 
money — the same as the notes of the bank were. The 
result was, that the stocks of the bank and of the Missis- 
sippi-Company rose rapidly in nominal value, until they 
attained a price eighty times their original cost. In the 
excitement, real estate rose rapidly in value, in many 
places. With the increase of paper money, and the facilities 
of making sales, immense numbers of persons became 
involved in visionary speculations in stocks and property, 
and utterly ruined when the bubble burst, and the 
bank failed, in 17 19. The failure of the bank put an end 
to the issue of paper money upon the continent of 
Europe for about half a century. (See volume I., p. 252 
to 257.) 

Banks of issue furnish so many temptations to exces- 
sive issues to accommodate their customers, and increase 
their profits ; and so many facilities for favoritism, for 
embezzlement, and to defraud creditors and stockholders, 
that banks which have not given government stocks as 
security for the redemption of their notes, have pro- 
duced more injury than good, in Europe as well as in 
America. But well-regulated banks, whose notes are 
properly secured by public stocks, have been great aids 
to business, and to the operations of governments. 

Banks and banking — to receive deposits, make loans, 
and facilitate exchanges — were introduced several centu- 
ries before the introduction of bank notes, to circulate as 
money. That banks of issue and paper money, when 
prudently managed, greatly facilitate the business of a 
country, is beyond all doubt. They also facilitate and 
encourage expansions of the currency, which unsettle 
values and derange business ; they facilitate over-trading, 
delusive financiering, wild -and visionary speculations, 
and gross frauds ; and without more safe-guards and se- 



62 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

vere laws to prevent and punish over-issues and frauds, 
than we have had in this country, it may well be doubted 
if they are not productive of as much evil as good. 

There is no business in the world which offers so many 
facilities and temptations for fraud and crime, and is so 
corrupting in its nature and tendency, as the making and 
management of paper currency, to circulate as money. 
The wish to increase the profits and income of a bank, 
tempts the banker to over-issues ; great facilities for 
borrowing money, tempt business men to over-trade, and 
encourage them into hazardous speculations and gam- 
bling operations in matters of commerce ; the handling 
of money often tempts officers and clerks to steal and em- 
bezzle, and to cheat by false entries and false certificates ; 
and the power to loan corporate funds often induces loans 
on insufficient securities, under the influences of bribery 
or favoritism. All these evils should be carefully guarded 
against by penal laws ; and our system may be regarded 
as still a matter of experiment, by no means as perfect 
as it may be made hereafter. 

The use of bills of exchange has increased, with the 
increase of mail facilities, the multiplication of banks, 
and the expansion of the banking system. Without 
post-offices and the regular transmission of mails, bills 
of exchange would be of no great importance ; nor could 
they come into very general use without numerous banks, 
or private bankers. Hence we see how one step and 
element in human progress is dependent upon another, 
and in its turn, promotes the development of others. 

44. Insurances, and Insurance Companies. 

The system of insurances is of modern origin, un- 
known to the Greeks and Romans. It is divided into 
four classes : 

1st. Marine insurances, against losses at sea. 

2d. Insurances against fire. 

3d. Life insurances ; and 

4th. Insurances against accidents, and injuries to the 
person. 

Marine insurances are supposed to have originated in 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 63 

the 13th century, as they are said to be referred to in the 
marine code of Wisby. (American Cyclopaedia, vol. ix.) 
They were but little known in England even as late as 
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 

By means of the system of insurances against loss by 
sea or fire, the resources of many are made available 
for the protection of the insured, who pays a small pre- 
mium, which he can spare without inconvenience, for 
the benefit of the security. Insurances prevent the ruin 
of individuals, and thereby tend to promote the security 
of trade. 

Marine insurance policies, or agreements to insure a 
vessel or her cargo against the dangers of the sea, were 
at first entered into exclusively by wealthy individ- 
uals called underwriters ; but for about two centuries 
past, the business has been done mostly by incorporated 
companies. The London and the Royal Exchange In- 
surance Companies are the oldest insurance companies 
in England. 

Insurances against fire, and life insurances, are of 
more recent origin than marine insurances. The Ami- 
cable Society for insurances against fire and upon lives, 
was established in London in 1707, by charter from 
Queen Anne ; and the Equitable Society of London 
was established in 1762. The amount of property in- 
sured against fire in England and Wales (as appears by 
official reports), was, at different periods, as follows : 

In 1782 £ 130,000,000 sterling. 

" 1802 220,000,000 " 

" 1822 399,000,000 " 

" 1842 652,000,000 " 

" 1862 1,007,000,000 " 

equal at the latter period to nearly five thousand millions 
of dollars. It is not probable that more than half the 
insurable property was actually insured ; nor that the 
property insured was insured at an average of more than 
two-thirds its real value. If so, the insurable property 
of England and Wales is more than three thousand mil- 
lion pounds sterling, equal to nearly fifteen thousand 



64 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

millions of dollars, and more than all the property in the 
United States, both real and personal (exclusive of 
slaves), in i860. What a rapid increase, and wonderful 
accumulation of insurable property these figures indi- 
cate ! The question arises, what are the causes which 
have produced such an immense accumulation of prop- 
erty in so small a country ? Let every reader inquire 
into the causes for himself. 

The system of mutual insurance companies originated 
in the United States about the year 1S30. They are of 
great utility among farmers in the country ; but are not 
well adapted to cities. The system of insurances against 
accidents to the person, also originated in the United 
States since the year i860. 

There are great -numbers of incorporated insurance 
companies in the United States, many of which are upon 
the mutual plan, in which the persons insured become 
stockholders, and participate in the profits which may 
be made by the company, over and above expenses and 
losses. The insurance business has become very exten- 
sive in the United States, and in Great Britain also, and 
in many other countries, and is rapidly increasing, to 
the greatly increased security of trade and business. 
Immense amounts of property are constantly insured, 
and great numbers of individuals and families are re- 
lieved from distress and ruin, by the amounts paid to 
them for losses. 



45. Savings Banks* 

Savings Banks have been of great value to the labor- 
ing classes as places of safe deposit for their small earn- 
ings, where they can be loaned to advantage, and inter- 
est paid upon them to the depositors. Their tendency 
has been to encourage industry, economy, thoughtfulness 
in relation to expenditures, and providence for the future. 
The multiplication of such institutions, the increasing 
numbers of depositors, and the aggregate amount depos- 

* The subject of Savings Banks is presented and discussed in the 
first volume of this work, pages 524 to 527. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 



65 



ited, all indicate an increasing thrift among the laboring 
classes, and an improvement in their condition, in many 
countries. 

Statement of the number and condition of Savings Banks in the fol- 
lowing cities, states and countries, at the undermentioned periods. 



Year. 

City of New York . . . 1 86 1 
City of Brooklyn .... " 
Other parts of State . " 
Total for New York. . " 

Vermont 1863 

New Hampshire .... " 

Maine 1862 

Massachusetts " 

Rhode Island " 

Connecticut. ....... 1863 

France 1852 

England and Wales. 1856 

Scotland " 

Ireland " 

Islands in British seas " 



No. of No. of Amount of 

Banks. Depositors. Deposits. 

22 215,485 $48,988,826 

6 40,000 6,791,746 

43 55,208 11,669,825 

71 310,693 67,450,397 

IO 11,045 1,712,231 

27 39,353 6,560,308 

15 11,833 1,876,165 

93^ 248,900 50,403,674 

21 37,774 9,560,441 

49 103,727 23,446,936 

357 $28,200,000 

498 1, 140,55 1. ^30,725,782 

46 119,281 1,936,495 

51 57,050 1,710,179 

2 14,487 38S,475 



G't Britain & Ireland 1856 597 
do. do 1862 . . . 



211 

*i5 

48 

64 



Prussia iJ 

Austria 1847 

Saxony 1 849 

Hanover 1 847 

Frankfort 1850 

Hamburg 

Switzerland 



City of Milan " 1 

City of Rome " 1 

City of Brussels .... 

There were no Savings Banks 



1,331,369 

1,557,571 

261,714 

248,430 

81,259 



5,452 
24,061 
55,ooo 



23,302 
in Naples. 



^34,760,931 
40,550,557 

$ 1 2,000,000 
25,500,000 
1,000,000 
1,100,000 
600,000 
1,250,000 
3,350,000 

2,275,000 
1,250,000 
3,200,000 



* 55 in all — only 15 of the most important reported. No reports 
from 40 of the smallest Savings Banks of Austria. 



66 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

Savings Banks are said to have originated in the city 
of Hamburg, where the first one was established in the 
year 1778. The first in Switzerland was established in 
Berne, in 1787 ; the first in England, in 1804; and the 
first in Scotland in 1807. 

The first Savings Bank established in the United 
States was in Philadelphia, in 18 16 ; the second was in 
Boston, the same year ; and the third was in the city of 
New York, in 18 19. 

The first Savings Bank established in France was in 
Paris, in 18 18 ; the second was in Bordeaux, in 1819 ; 
and the third was in Marseilles, in 1821. The Savings 
Bank of Berlin, in Prussia, was founded in 18 18. 

There are Savings Banks in Bavaria and Saxony, and 
some other of the German kingdoms, and some also in 
Italy and Austria ; but they are a rare thing in countries 
which have but little manufacturing industry. There 
are but very few such institutions in the Southern or 
Western States, or in any of the States, except New 
York and the New England States. There is one in the 
city of Detroit, but no other in the State of Michigan. 

46. Gunpowder and Fire-arms. 

Gunpowder was invented in Europe as early as the 
thirteenth century, and came into use for military pur- 
poses after the invention of cannon in the fourteenth 
century ; but it did not come into very general use for 
blasting rocks and mining, until the eighteenth century. 
For such uses and purposes it is one of the most power- 
ful agencies ever invented by man. It has changed the 
whole character and success of war, from superiority in 
personal strength and skill, numbers and bravery, to 
the use of mechanical powers and science, material 
resources and organization. 

Before the invention of gunpowder and fire-arms, the 
practised barbarian had an advantage in war, over 
civilized communities and nations ; but with the use of 
powder and fire-arms, shot and shell, rifles and rifled 
cannon, steamships and gunboats, railroads and locomo- 
tives, success in war depends mostly on mechanical 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 67 

powers and science, organization and material resources 
— which give civilized nations of great industry and 
wealth, powerful advantages over savages and barbarians. 
The military power of nations at this day, depends more 
on national industry and wealth — on mechanical power 
and shipping, than on numbers, or on personal bravery 
and skill in war ; and hence the civilization of the world 
can never be again overturned, or materially impeded, by 
barbarians. 



47. Militaty Science. 

Military power is a necessary instrument in the 
hands of the chief magistrate of a state or nation — to 
aid in executing the laws, in maintaining order and the 
supremacy of law, and suppressing mobs and insurrec- 
tions, as well as repelling invasions. The more perfect 
military science and organization, the more complete the 
arms and equipments of the men, and the more perfect 
their discipline and movements, the less number will be 
required to effect the objects desired, and the less burden- 
some the maintenance of the necessary military power 
will be to the people. 

The military should be a mere arm of the civil power 
— in strict subordination to it, and as small in numbers 
as the condition of the country will warrant ; otherwise 
they impose heavy and unnecessary burdens on the peo- 
ple, become clogs to progress, and often menace, and 
sometimes overthrow, both civil and political liberty. 
Large standing armies have ever been instruments of 
despotism and tyranny. They trample down liberty, 
impose enormous burdens on the people, and greatly 
impede their progress in industry, wealth, and civiliza- 
tion. 

In modern warfare, science and mechanical powers and 
instruments are, to a great extent, substituted for muscu- 
lar power and skill ; which gives highly civilized and 
industrial, commercial and wealthy nations, having large 
resources and almost unlimited military supplies and 
means of transportation, immense advantages over bar- 
barians, and also over rebels and revolutionists, who 



68 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

are usually deficient in all the elements necessary for mili- 
tary success. Military science and organization, there- 
fore, contribute to the peace and tranquillity of nations. 

48. Coal-gas ', and the Art of making It. 

The art of distilling a combustible and illuminating 
gas from mineral coal, was discovered in England about 
the year 1739, in experimenting in chemistry. It was 
not however applied to any practical use until the year 
1792, when Mr. Murdock, of Wales, conceived the idea of 
using it for lighting buildings. He commenced experi- 
menting upon the subject, and invented apparatus for 
the manufacture and use of coal-gas, with which he suc- 
ceeded in lighting a manufacturing establishment at 
Birmingham, in England, in 1798. But gas was not 
very much used until after the year 1804. 

Coal-gas was first introduced into the city of Boston, 
in the year 1822; the first gas-works in the city of New 
York went into successful operation as late as the year 
1827, and in other large American cities on or near the 
sea-board, at a still later period. Gas was not introduced 
into many of the interior and western cities of the United 
States, until after the year 1850; but since the year 
1855, it has been introduced into nearly all the interior 
and western cities, and into many of the large villages 
also. 

Coal-gas is of immense importance to the civilized 
world, for lighting the streets of cities and villages, and 
public places also, as well as for lighting buildings. It 
should be borne in mind that the whaling business has 
been prosecuted so vigorously during the present century, 
that the whale fisheries are nearly exhausted ; and with- 
out the use of coal-gas, much larger quantities of oil and 
tallow would be needed by the civilized world, than could 
possibly be furnished. These facts show us the im- 
mense importance of the art of distilling and using coal- 
gas ; and that the invention was made at a period in the 
world's history, when it was much needed. It is now con- 
tributing largely to promote the industry and comforts of 
man, and the progress of civilization. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 69 

49. Penitentiaries and Work-houses. 

A penitentiary unites the characteristics of a prison, in 
which persons convicted of crime may be confined for safe 
keeping and punishment — with the advantages of a work- 
shop ; in which they may be employed, and their labor 
rendered productive. In them, convicts are confined 
separately, in solitary cells at night, and in large work- 
shops, under keepers and strict surveillance, and required 
to labor in silence, during the day. 

Such prisons answer a four-fold purpose. 1st. Of 
detaining and keeping convicts safely. 2nd. Of punish- 
ment. 3rd. Of reforming them by means of continued 
industry and moral influences. And lastly, of rendering 
their labor productive. 

Industry- — constant industry under surveillance and 
rigid discipline, is the most" efficient of all reformatory 
agencies. Idleness and indolence are the parents of vice 
and crime. To keep men from crime, they must have the 
means of subsistence ; and if they are poor, they must 
have employment, and be accustomed to daily labor and 
toil. Hence the importance of teaching men in prison 
some useful employment- — and habits of industry — to fit 
them to live by honest industry after their discharge. 

The Romans and other nations of antiquity had no peni- 
tentiaries, no prisons for purposes of punishment, and 
very few for the detention and safe-keeping of persons 
charged with crime. Their modes of punishment were 
generally the chain-gang, the galley, capital executions, 
and selling men into slavery. Their whole system of 
criminal jurisprudence and punishment for crime, was 
unfeeling and cruel, and miserably defective and ineffi- 
cient ; which served to debase and brutalize the criminal, 
and harden the feelings of the people, and was one of the 
principal causes of the moral corruption and disorders of 
ancient times. 

Penitentiaries, uniting the purposes of prisons and 
work-houses — with silent labor during the day, and soli- 
tary confinement at night, are not only of modern origin, 
but really of American origin ; the Auburn Prison, in the 
State of New York, built about. the year 1820, being the 



7<3 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

first in which the system was properly carried into practi- 
cal effect. 

The Auburn Prison, and the system of labor and disci- 
pline there inaugurated, have furnished the model for 
nearly all the penitentiaries of the United States, and for 
those of Great Britain, France, Germany, and many other 
countries of Europe. The inauguration of the system 
may be regarded as an era in the progress of civilization. 

50. Asylums for the Insane, for the Deaf and Dumb, and 
for the Blind. 

Asylums for the treatment and cure of the Insane, and 
schools for the education of the Deaf and Dumb, and 
the Blind, are all of modern origin. Very few were in 
existence prior to the American revolution ; and the pro- 
cesses were all comparatively crude, until after the deve- 
lopment of the natural sciences — during the wars which 
grew out of the French revolution. They have been per- 
fected during the last fifty years — whereby thousands of 
persons of unsound minds have been cured and restored 
to a career of usefulness ; and thousands of deaf and 
dumb persons, and many blind ones, also, have been so far 
educated to practical employments, as to make their 
services valuable and render them useful members of 
society. 

The treatment of the insane has shown most clearly, 
the entire dependence of the intellect upon the brain and 
nervous system, as physical organs of the mind ; and that 
insanity is a disease or weakness of physical origin, and 
not a mere mysterious perversion of the intellectual facul- 
ties, without any physical cause. It has thrown much 
light upon the mysterious manner in which the intellec- 
tual faculties and the vital organs are blended, and upon 
the nature of disease also ; and shown that a sound intel- 
lect requires the harmonious action of a healthy brain and 
nervous system, sufficiently nourished by the proper 
action of the organs of nutrition. 

The experience and experiments in the treatment of the 
insane, and in the education of the deaf and dumb and the 
blind, during the last hundred years, have been produc- 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 71 

tive of great discoveries and improvements, which have 
been of immense value, not only to those unfortunate 
classes of persons, but also to their friends, and to the 
civilized world. 



51. Steam Boats, and Steam Navigation* 

Steam navigation commenced on the Hudson River in 
1807. It is an American invention. The first Steam 
Boat of any value, constructed by Robert Fulton, made 
her first trip from New York to Albany, in July of that 
year. 

The invention of Steam Boats has nearly revolution- 
ized the interior navigation of all the civilized countries 
of the earth — and changed also to a very great extent, 
the mode of carrying passengers by sea, as well as on 
lakes and "rivers. Before the invention of steam naviga- 
tion, it was impossible to ascend large rivers, above tide- 
water, against the current, with sail vessels. Nothing but 
small boats with oars, could be used ; and such is the 
mode of navigating the Nile, above Cairo, at the present 
day. The great Mississippi, Missouri and Ohio rivers, 
with their numerous tributaries, were of but little value 
for purposes of ascending navigation, until after the inven- 
tion of the Steam Boat, by Fulton. The same may be 
said of the Rhine, the Rhone, the Danube, and all the 
great rivers of Europe ; and of the Amazon, the Rio de 
La Plata, and all the great rivers of South America. It 
requires but little reflection for the reader to realize the 
Jmmense importance of steam navigation to the human 
family, and its great influence upon the commerce, the 
industry, and the progress of civilized nations. 

52. Railroads. 

The subject of Railroads, their invention, introduction 
and increase, is presented to the reader in the first volume 
of this work, pages 503 to 511. They have become 

* The subject of Steam Boats and ocean steamers is presented to 
the reader in the first volume of this work, pages 505 and 506. 



72 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

powerful and wonderful agents of business and industry, 
and equally wonderful agents of human progress. They 
have lessened very much the importance of turnpike roads, 
canals, and even river and lake navigation. They have 
drawn and now control nearly all the travel of the United 
States, and of more than half of Europe also. They have 
opened markets to interior districts previously inaccessi- 
ble ; facilitated the settlement and improvement of remote, 
interior districts, and the opening of mines, previously 
almost valueless ; promoted industry of all kinds ; and 
increased the interior trade and commerce of our country, 
and of many other countries, from two to ten fold. They 
have also increased very largely the speed of the mails, 
and the facilities of transmitting mails, newspapers, 
information of all kinds, and light goods, to from 60 or 100 
miles to over five hundred miles in twenty-four hours. 

Extensive railroad facilities give nations possessing 
them great military advantages over those having none, 
or very few, by facilitating the rapid movement of troops, 
cannon, military stores and provisions, and all the mate- 
rials of war. They enabled Louis Napoleon to go quickly 
to the aid of the king of Sardinia in 1859, t° collect a large 
and well supplied army upon the frontiers of Lombardy 
in a few days, and to drive the Austrians out of Lombardy 
in a very short time. They enabled the United States to 
move troops and munitions of war to the seat of war in 
the seceding States, with wonderful rapidity, and together 
with steam gunboats on the bays and rivers, they con- 
tributed largely to aid in subduing the great rebellion. 

The first introduction of Railroads into the United 
States was in the year 1826; and there were less than 
one hundred miles of road in operation in our country at 
the beginning of the year 1830. The mileage of Rail- 
roads completed in i860 is reported in the census at 
30,794 miles, costing with their equipments $1,151,560,- 
829 ; of which there were in the eleven insurgent States 
8,947 miles, costing $237,376,097 ; and in the loyal States 
21,847 miles, costing $914,184,732. There were also 
street railroads in cities having an aggregate length of 
402 miles, and costing $14,862,840. Street railroads are 
of great importance to the inhabitants of cities. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 73 

The aggregate length of railroads in use in France, 
December 30, 1862, was reported at 11,074 kilometres, 
equal to about 6,920 English miles. 

The total number of miles of railroads opened for use 
in Great Britain and in Ireland, 1859, was as follows : 

In England and Wales 7> 2l 7 miles. 

In Scotland 1,369 " 

In Ireland 1,210 " 



Total in the United Kingdom 9,796 miles. 

The miles of railroads in use, in the undermentioned 
countries, and years, have been reported as follows : 

Years. Miles opened. 

Austria 1856 1,586 

Belgium 1856 445 

Holland 1857 163 

Prusia 1856 2,503 

German States, exclusive 

of Prussia and Austria 1855 2,226 

Italy 1862 1,400 

Railroads have been introduced also into Russia, Switz- 
erland, Spain, the British East Indies, Chili, and several 
other countries ; and will soon be introduced into every 
country of the civilized world. Who can doubt, that they 
constitute one of the greatest elements of progress ever 
invented by man ? Much of the utility and value of rail- 
roads is due, however, to locomotives, as is shown in the 
next article. 

53. Locomotives. 

A locomotive was invented and used on a railroad in 
Wales as early as 1804 ; but the construction was so 
imperfect, that it was not of much practical value. It 
served, however, as an experiment, to stimulate invention, 
and its action, and even its deficiencies, served to suggest 
improvements — until, under the stimulus of a premium, 
offered by the Directors of the Liverpool & Manchester 
Railway, Company for the best locomotive for their road, 

4 



74 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

Mr. Robert Stephenson invented one in 1829, with which 
he succeeded in running from fifteen to twenty-nine 
miles per hour. Many improvements have been since 
made, and the locomotive increased in size, weight, and 
power, until it has attained a colossal size, great weight, 
wonderful power, and surpassing speed. The iron horse 
is a wonderful instrument. 

As locomotives are based on the steam-engine, which 
furnishes their motive power — being a combination of a 
steam-engine with a railroad carriage, made very heavy — 
it was impossible to invent a locomotive, until after the 
steam-engine was invented, and brought to a high state 
of perfection. As they can be used only on railroads, 
they were not needed, could not have been of any utility, 
and therefore could not be experimented with and in- 
vented, until after the introduction of railroads. 

As locomotives depend first upon the steam-engine, and 
secondly upon railroads, so the latter depend greatly upon 
the locomotive for their utility and value. Railroads 
were used in some of the coal mines of Great Britain as 
early as the year 1 770 ; but as horse-power was the only 
power used upon them, with one single exception, they did 
not supersede the stage-coach, and the common wagon, 
and were not much used for the transportation of either 
passengers or freight, until after the improvement of the 
locomotive by Mr. Stephenson, in 1829. Since that time, 
by the aid of the locomotive, railroads have assumed a 
degree of importance and influence upon the industry 
and commerce of civilized nations, which is truly surpris- 
ing ; and hence they have been multiplied and extended, 
with wonderful rapidity, in the United States, as well as 
in Europe, Canada, and other parts of the civilized world. 

Without the locomotive, and with horse-power to move 
cars, railroads could never have attained any very great 
degree of importance or been of much use, except in the 
coal-mines, and in the streets, and in the vicinity of large 
cities. Hence the credit due to the modern system of 
transporting passengers and freights by rail, should be 
nearly equally divided between the inventions of railroads, 
steam-engines, and locomotives. 

These facts and illustrations show how one invention 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 75 

is dependent upon another, and how one has been 
suggested by those that preceded it. In fact we may say, 
that the successive inventions, of modern times, are in 
some measure sequences of each other, and of those that 
preceded them. Without the railroad, the locomotive 
would be of no practical value ; without the steam-engine, 
the locomotive could not have come into existence ; and 
hence the locomotive could not precede, but must follow, 
both the steam-engine and the railroad, as an invention. 
The railroad was of some practical use without the loco- 
motive, and was therefore first invented ; but as each is 
necessary to the success of the other, they have been 
improved and perfected together. They are both power- 
ful agents in the hands of man, and active elements of 
progress. 

54. Electric Telegraphs. 

The first Electric Telegraph of much practical value, 
was invented by Prof. S. F. B. Morse of New York, and 
put in operation between Washington and Baltimore in 
1844. Baine's, House's, and several other telegraphs, 
slightly different, were soon invented. The scientific 
achievement was so great and brilliant, and the practical 
effect of several of the inventions so satisfactory, that 
lines of telegraph were very quickly put up in the United 
States, Great Britain, France, and several other countries 
of Europe, and multiplied with wonderful rapidity. They 
are now (1866) in operation in every part of the United 
States ; and in nearly every country of the civilized 
world. It has been estimated that the lines in operation 
in i860 were equal : 

In the United States to over 50,000 miles. 

In Great Britain and Ireland 40,000 " 

In Germany over 35,ooo " 

In France 26,000 " 

In Russia over t . 1 2,000 " 

In Italy over 6,000 " 

In Switzerland over 2,000 " 

In India over 5,000 " 

And in Australia about 1,000 " 



J6 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

They are extensively used for the transmission of intel- 
ligence for commercial and social purposes ; for the use 
of the daily newspaper press ; for the information of the 
government, and for police and military purposes ; and 
for the use of railroads, to give notice of the progress of 
trains of cars, and of any accidents and delays that may 
occur. The most important events are transmitted daily 
to all the great cities and published in the daily papers — 
making the news by telegraph the most attractive portion 
of a modern newspaper. The electric telegraph is the 
greatest marvel of the age, and of the world's history. It is 
daily contributing largely to the diffusion of intelligence, 
and is an element of progress, of great influence and 
importance. 

55. Labor-Saving Instruments and Machinery invented 
since the American Revolution* 

Since the American Revolution, a prodigious num- 
ber of useful inventions have been made, of labor-saving 
instruments — of great value — the most of which were 
made in the United States, including many hundreds for 
agricultural purposes. Among the most important of 
them are improved plows and harrows ; cultivators and 
drills for putting in seed-grain ; mowers and reapers, and 
horse-rakes ; threshing machines and stump machines ; 
circular saws and planing machines ; various machines 
for making nails and for cutting and heading them ; and 
quite recently, a variety of sewing machines have been 
invented, which have had great influence upon female 
labor. 

All these classes of instruments and machinery have 
had a prodigious influence upon the industry of the 
American people, and rendered it much more effective 
than it could have been without them. They have also 
had a great influence upon the productive industry of the 
people of Great Britain, France, Germany, and some other 

* The subjects of mechanical instruments of a common kind, in 
use for several thousand years, machinery for carding, roving, and 
spinning cotton and wool, and also power-looms, have been presented 
in No. 3, and in vol. i., pp. 24 and 25, and 205 to 209. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 77 

nations of Europe. The agricultural instruments invented 
and brought into use since the year 1790, render agricul- 
tural labor upon plains and prairies, bottoms and all level 
lands, from two to three times as effective as it was before 
that time. 

During the years 1863 and 1864, and the early part of 
1865, more than one-third part of the able-bodied men of 
the loyal States were in our armies — fighting for the 
Union and the Federal Government, and nearly one- 
fourth part of them were engaged in the war in 1862. 
The country was greatly drained of laborers to supply 
our armies — and without the use of labor-saving instru- 
ments and machinery invented since the year 1790, it 
would have been impossible to prosecute the war with 
such wonderful vigor, and carry on the cultivation of the 
earth with such efficiency, and to such an extent, as was 
necessary to supply and maintain our immense armies in 
the field, and the large numbers employed in manufactur- 
ing arms and equipments, wagons and military supplies, 
clothing and munitions of war ; and at the same time to 
furnish food and supplies for the whole people at home, 
and a surplus to export, to maintain the national credit 
abroad. Such things could not have been accomplished 
in any previous period of the world's history. We may, 
therefore, very properly give much credit to such labor- 
saving instruments and machinery, and class them among 
the most efficient elements of human progress and power. 

56. Schools of the Natural and Mechanical Sciences, and 
Commercial Colleges. 

Some of the principles of natural and mechanical sci- 
ence have been long taught in colleges and universities ; 
but anything like a thorough course of instruction in the 
natural and mechanical sciences, chemistry, or in civil- 
engineering, was unknown, except in a few military 
schools, until the nineteenth century. 

Chemistry, as a science, is of recent origin. But little 
was known of its laws or principles ; very few of the com- 
pounds of nature had been analyzed and reduced to their 
original elements, and but a few of the elements of matter 



78 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

were known, prior to the nineteenth century. Nothing 
upon the subject, of much importance, was taught in the 
schools prior to that time. 

There was not much mechanical science until after the 
steam-engine and some of the machinery invented since 
that time. Civil engineering has grown up with the art 
of making canals, railroads, and bridges, during the last 
hundred years. Special schools for giving instruction in 
the natural and mechanical sciences, and in chemistry 
and civil engineering, and for giving students some prac- 
tical, as well as theoretical knowledge of such matters, 
have been established in various parts of the United 
States, and in many countries of Europe, during the pres- 
ent century; which have been of incalculable importance in 
training and fitting young men for the higher departments 
of mechanical and manufacturing business — for superin- 
tending the construction and management of canals and 
railroads, factories and mining operations, and all the 
great enterprises of modern times. 

Commercial colleges are of still more recent origin. 
They teach not only book-keeping, but many of the prin- 
ciples of commercial law, the general customs and usages 
of business — so far as it can be taught and learned, except 
in the counting-room, the store, or the office. 

All these classes of schools have contributed largely to 
diffuse practical knowledge of business, and the higher 
employments of life, and the principles and rules upon 
which the same are based ; and hence they may be regard- 
ed as elements of progress, which have accelerated the 
improvement and progress of the United States, and of 
several of the nations of Europe. 

57. Express Comfia?zies. 

The Express business was originated by Wm. F. Harn- 
den, of Boston, who commenced carrying packages of 
money and other valuable articles between Boston and New 
York, as a public messenger, by railroad and steamboat, 
in March, 1 839 — making, at first, four trips a week. Adams 
and others engaged in the business the following year, 
and within twenty years thereafter, several large Express 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 79 

Companies were organized for the regular carriage of 
small packages of any kind, and valuable articles on many 
of the great railroad lines in the United States — with 
Express Offices and agents in the cities and large villages 
upon these lines — employing in all the departments up- 
wards of five thousand persons, and a capital estimated 
at ten millions of dollars. 

As a messenger goes in the railroad car or steamboat, 
with the articles sent by Express, having an iron safe in 
which to lock up packages containing money, bonds, and 
other valuable articles, it is the safest, cheapest, and most 
expeditious mode in which such things, and small packa- 
ges of very valuable and costly merchandize, can be sent 
and the delivery warranted. 

The Express system affords great facilities to banks 
and bankers, merchants and other business men, in car- 
rying on their business, and is occasionally of service to 
all classes of the community. It is one of the greatest 
improvements in the method of doing business ever in- 
troduced — second only to the use of bills of exchange. It 
marks an era in the mode of doing business, and may 
fairly be regarded not merely as an evidence, but as a 
means and an element of progress. 

The Express business is dependent upon railroads and 
locomotives, and could not have been carried on or sug- 
gested to the mind of man, until after they came into use. 
It furnishes another illustration of the mode in which one 
invention, art, or method, often suggests others to the 
human mind — and how all the inventions and improve- 
ments of man, are, in some measure, the developments in 
certain classes of inventive minds, of antecedents — pro- 
ducing their natural effects, though they never suggest 
anything new to the common mind. Nothing of an in- 
ventive or scientific character has ever been developed 
among the negro race, or among any people of the torrid 
zone. 



53. The Arts of Vocal and Instrumental Music, Painting 
and Sculpture. 

To cultivate a taste for beauty and harmony tends to 



80 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

soften and refine the feelings, to elevate the views, and to 
promote good social feeling and harmony in a community. 
The fine arts and their practice furnish the principal 
sources and means of amusement, and every people must 
have some amusement to keep them in good cheer. The 
wealthy and fashionable require amusements almost daily 
to pass away time, and all classes require amusements as 
well as relaxation from toil, occasionally ; otherwise life 
becomes dreary, and sometimes ceases to be desirable. 
Music and dancing ; concerts of music and rehearsals of 
poetry ; galleries of painting and sculpture ; panoramic and 
stereoscopic views, have, in the present age, taken the 
places of many of the grosser amusements of ancient 
times, and of the middle ages. Music, both vocal and 
instrumental, performs also an important part in religious 
worship in all Christian countries. 

The fine arts contribute largely to promote the pleasures 
and enjoyments of a people. Having a softening, refining, 
and elevating tendency, they promote the progress of 
civilization — though they may not promote directly, the 
industrial and material progress of a state or nation. 

59. The Processes of Dagnerreotyping and PliotograpJiing. 

The art of making miniature portraits and pictures with 
perfect accuracy, bythe Daguerreotype process, was invent- 
ed by Daguerre, a French artist, in 1838. By numerous 
experiments the process was improved, more discoveries 
were made, and the art of photographing was soon after- 
wards invented. Those arts now employ thousands of 
persons in the United States, and in nearly every country 
of Europe. Millions of miniature portraits are thereby 
made annually — including likenesses of nearly the whole 
people. The likenesses of friends are made, distributed 
and perpetuated, in large numbers ; immense numbers of 
likenesses of distinguished persons are made, and sold 
and distributed among the people ; and pictures of fine 
buildings, of cities and villages, of beautiful scenes and 
landscapes, are also made — many of which become the 
foundations for paintings for panoramic views. The pro- 
ducts of these arts serve to please and amuse, and also to 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 8 1 

instruct as well as to gratify the best feelings of the hu- 
man heart. These arts diffuse a large amount of useful 
as well as interesting information, aid in cultivating and 
improving the public taste, and tend to refine and elevate 
the feelings of a people. 

60. The Art of boring Artesian Wells. 

The first Artesian well sunk in Europe, was in the year 
1 1 26, in Artois, a province of France, from which the 
name is derived. It is said, however, that such wells were 
in use in China, Arabia, and the desert of Sahara, long be- 
fore they were known in France : but the time of their 
introduction into those countries is very uncertain. The 
difficulties and cost of boring, curbing, and securing such 
wells, were so great, that very few were sunk in Europe, 
and none in the United States, until since the year 1830. 

The famous Grenelle Artesian well in the basin of Paris, 
1,797 feet deep, was commenced in 1833, and water was 
not obtained until the 26th of February, 1841. It flows 
at the rate of 500,000 gallons in twenty-four hours. The 
Artesian well at St. Louis, 2,199 ^ eet m depth, is the deep- 
est well ever sunk in this country or in Europe. It was 
commenced in the spring of 1849, an d finished in 1854, 
at an expense of more than $10,000. 

The art of boring Artesian wells has been used in the 
United States, mostly for exploring the crust of the 
earth, for salt, coal, and other mineral substances ; and 
lastly for petroleum or rock oil. The art has been, and is, 
of immense utility, in aiding the discovery of the interior 
treasures of the earth. The discovery of petroleum in 
numerous localities in the States of Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
Western Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and also in Can- 
ada West, by means of the art of boring Artesian wells, 
and the extraction of millions of gallons of oil, annually, 
for some years past, is the greatest marvel of the age, 
with the single exception of the electric telegraph. 

Refined petroleum (kerosene) furnishes the cheapest 
light ever used in this or any country. It has been dis- 
covered in America in immense quantities, at a period in 
the world's history, when the whale fisheries seem so 



82 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

nearly exhausted, that, were it not for coal-gas and the 
discovery of petroleum, it would be very difficult to sup- 
ply commercial nations with materials to light their houses 
and workshops, their stores and other buildings, and the 
streets of cities. 

Petroleum or naphtha springs were known on the shores 
of the Caspian sea, in the Burman Empire, and in Italy 
and some of the Italian islands, hundreds of years since ; 
and some have been long known in western Pennsylvania. 
At all of which small quantities of oil were collected and 
sold, mostly for medicinal purposes ; but used some for 
burning in lamps to furnish light. It was not till the year 
1859 that the first oil-well in the world was bored at Titus- 
ville, on Oil-creek, in western Pennsylvania ; which soon 
furnished four hundred gallons, and afterwards one thou- 
sand gallons of oil daily. That success produced such an 
excitement, that before the end of the year i860, about 
two thousand wells were sunk in the United States — 
seventy-four of which were successful — yielding daily, 
over one thousand barrels of oil. The speculative ex- 
citement continued to increase, during the years 1861, 
1862, 1863, 1864 an d 1865 ; and great numbers of Pe- 
troleum Companies were organized, and wells bored as 
experiments, in nearly all the Western States, and also in 
Canada West. The products of the wells of the United 
States for the year 1865, have been estimated by well- 
informed persons, at ten thousand barrels of oil daily — 
and over three million barrels during the year ; worth, in 
a crude state, about $20,000,000. 

Hundreds of salt wells have been also bored in Michi- 
gan and other Western States, from which large quanti- 
ties of salt are annually manufactured. These and other 
results, have come from the art of boring Artesian wells, 
and the more modern arts of refining petroleum, and ap- 
plying it to numerous useful purposes. These illustra- 
tions show the influence upon the prosperity of our 
country, of the art of boring Artesian wells. It has, in 
fact, become an efficient element of national progress. 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 8$ 

6 1. A wise Public Policy. 

It is impossible for a people to make much progress, 
without a government having many good qualities, and 
a wise public policy. The measures and policy of a 
government have great influence upon the industry and 
progress of a people ; and their material progress de- 
pends much upon their intellectual development, and 
their social education. 

The public policy of a people is displayed in the form 
and character of their government ; in their code of laws 
and system of jurisprudence ; in their criminal code and 
system of police ; in their laws to establish schools, and 
to encourage learning and science ; in their laws in re- 
lation to roads and public improvements ; in their laws 
to regulate commerce and navigation ; in their system 
of taxation and revenue, currency and finance ; and in 
their system of uniting and combining labor and capital 
for public works, and great enterprises, by means of cor- 
porations. 

A wise public policy, in the regulation of foreign com- 
merce, is always coupled with taxation upon imports, and 
particularly upon luxuries, and such manufacturers as come 
in competition with domestic industry — and often upon 
some classes of exports also. Such a system of taxation, 
wisely adjusted to the condition and circumstances of a 
country, answers many purposes. 

ist. It is the best and easiest mode of collecting reve- 
nue for the support of the government. 

2d. It tends to secure a portion of the domestic mar- 
ket to the industry of the country, and to increase com- 
petition and domestic industry. 

3d. By increasing competition and products, it tends 
to keep down prices, and to throw the duty or tax upon 
the foreign producer, to be paid by him as a compensa- 
tion for the privilege of partially supplying our markets. 

4th. It tends to prevent a balance of trade against a 
country, the accumulation of a foreign debt, and the ex- 
port of specie to pay such balance of trade and interest 
on the debt. 

5th. It tends also to keep trade steady — to prevent 



84 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 

sudden and violent fluctuations in trade and business, and 
to prevent panics, revulsions, and widespread bankrupcy 
— which occasionally result from excessive importations, 
unfavorable balances of trade, and large exports of specie. 

Great changes in revenue and tariff laws should not 
be made suddenly, but gradually — so that manufacturers 
and merchants can accommodate their business to them, 
and to the wants of the people. Changes should be made 
only as experience suggests their expediency, and not for 
partisan purposes, nor by reason of a change of the 
majority from one political party to another. The legis- 
lation of a country should never be guided, nor should its 
policy be determined by radical and untried theories, nor 
by assumed principles of political economy ; but should 
be accommodated to the circumstances of the country, 
and guided by that wisdom which is learned from ex- 
perience and the history of nations. None of the as- 
sumed principles and truths of political economy, which 
have been laid down by public writers, can be safely re- 
ceived and followed, without qualification or exception, by 
all nations and peoples, and under all circumstances. 

The measures of government should be well matured, 
adapted to the conditions and circumstances of the 
country, and moulded in accordance with a wise purpose 
of public policy ; and, when so matured and adjusted, 
they should be adhered to with great steadiness of pur- 
pose — only such changes of detail being made to supply 
deficiencies and correct errors from time to time, as ex- 
perience may suggest. 

If the present practice and policy of the country shall 
be continued, nearly all the good pine, and the best of 
the sawing, building, and ship timber of the United 
States, that is accessible, will be cut off within twenty 
years ; and unless the spirit of vandalism can be stayed, 
nearly every part of the United States will become, with- 
in fifty years, more destitute of wood for fuel, as well as 
timber, than Great Britain is now. The net-work of 
railroads has been hastening this alarming result with 
wonderful rapidity. 

A crop of wheat or Indian corn for bread, can be cul- 
tivated and harvested in a single year ; cattle for slaugh- 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. ■ 85 

ter can be raised in three or four years ; but it requires 
from one to two hundred years, to raise timber fit for 
sawing. The planting of trees for growing forests has 
been practiced on the plains' of Russia on a large scale, 
and to a considerable extent also in Great Britain, France, 
and many other countries of Europe ; and the time has 
come to commence the practice on the prairies of our 
Western States and Territories. Something should be 
done by the federal and State governments also — to en- 
courage the cultivation and preservation of forest trees 
and timber. The principal question of political economy 
in our country as well as in Europe, will soon be, not how 
to supply the people with food, but how to supply fuel 
for their dwellings and workshops ; for their steam-en- 
gines and locomotives ; and timber for all purposes neces- 
sary for their industry and their comforts. 

Instead of imposing heavy taxes on timbered lands — to 
encourage their sale to actual settlers, and the destruc- 
tion of the timber, a wise policy would dictate the en- 
couragement of the growth and preservation of forests 
and timbered lands, by exempting them from taxation, and 
imposing a large income tax upon the value of all the 
wood and timber cut for market. What will be the con- 
dition of Great Britain, and of the United States also, 
if the present policy be continued for a century more, 
when nearly all their coal mines shall have been exhaust- 
ed, their forests cut down, and their timber used up, is a 
question too dark and gloomy for the present generation 
to contemplate. 

A wise public policy requires governments to adopt 
and pursue such a system of taxation and measures, as 
will best secure the welfare of future generations as well 
as the present, and not sacrifice the rights and interests 
of other generations, for the benefit of the present one. 
That is the only mode in which the progress and welfare 
of a nation can be secured, with any degree of perma- 
nence. We may therefore regard a wise public policy as 
an element of progress. 



86 ELEMENTS AND AGENTS 



Sec. io. General Comments upon the Elements of Pro- 
gress. 

When we look abroad among the nations of the earth, 
observe the condition of a nation, and inquire into the 
history of its industry, we find it has advanced in indus- 
try, wealth, and civilization, in proportion to its natural 
advantages and resources, and the number of artificial 
elements of progress which the people employ, and the 
extent to which they are used. Machinery, steam-en- 
gines as a motive power, and nearly all the instruments 
and implements of industry, agricultural as well as me- 
chanical, are made mostly of iron. Hence the industry 
of a people may be determined with a close approxima- 
tion to accuracy, by the quantity of iron they have in use, 
and the quantity they consume annually. No country in 
the world except Great Britain, can make three to four 
millions of tons of iron annually, and with as little labor ; 
for the reason that no other country has so large coal- 
fields in the immediate vicinity of inexhaustible quanti- 
ties of good iron stone. But other nations may procure, 
through the medium of commerce, all the iron they need 
to make their industry effective. The industry and com- 
merce of a people should therefore be adapted to their 
condition and wants, and to the natural resources of the 
country which they occupy. 

The cardinal elements of progress are inventions and 
the instruments of industry, commerce and the Sciences, 
letters and written language, books and schools, organ- 
ized governments and written laws. It is impossible for 
any people to have much industry — without employing 
the machinery and the instruments of industry, which are 
the results of thousands, and even millions of inventions, 
and improvements upon previous inventions. Nor is it 
possible for any people to hold the rank of a civilized and 
enlightened nation in the present age of the world, with- 
out great industry and considerable commerce, an organ- 
ized government and written laws, books and schools, 
newspapers and periodical literature, post-offices and reg- 
ular mails, railroads and steam navigation, and all the 



WHICH PROMOTE PROGRESS. 8? 

elements, or the products of all the elements of progress 
which have been enumerated. A civilized people cannot 
be governed entirely by unwritten customs and usages, 
as barbarians and half-civilized nations are. 

A people may borrow the industrial arts, the sciences, 
and all the elements of progress, from other nations, and 
may use them to considerable advantage — even though 
they may not have sufficient reasoning powers and in- 
ventive talent to make the slightest invention or improve- 
ment in anything, nor the least discovery in science. 
But the history of the Spanish- American nations, and of 
the hot regions of Africa, indicate that no people living 
in the torrid zone, can maintain in their vigor, even the 
elements of progress and civilization which their ances- 
tors may have borrowed, or brought with them from a 
temperate climate, unless there is a stream of emigrants 
coming among them from higher latitudes, having more 
vigor both of body and mind, and more intelligence than 
they possess. Without such renewing energies, the gen- 
eral tendencies of peoples living in the torrid zone, seems 
to be to degenerate, and to sink gradually towards bar- 
barism. Perhaps those occupying high table-lands in the 
torrid zone, may enjoy a climate so modified by elevation, 
that they do not come within the operation of this rule ; 
but even that is doubtful. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

OBSTACLES AND IMPEDIMENTS TO THE PROGRESS OF A 
NATION OR PEOPLE. 

Some of the nations of the earth are highly favored 
with natural elements of progress, and with numerous 
artificial elements also, and impeded with very few ob- 
stacles ; while others are so borne down with obstacles 
and impediments that progress is impossible. The ob- 
stacles and impediments to the progress of nations may 
be divided into natural and artificial. They may be clas- 
sified as follows : — 

ist. The barrenness of the country which a people in- 
habit. 

2d. The want of sufficient wood and timber. 
3d. The want of sufficient mineral resources. 

As agriculture and the productions of the soil furnish 
the materials with which a people must be fed and 
clothed ; and the mines and forests furnish the elements 
with which their instruments and implements of industry 
are made, and their dwellings, workshops, and other build- 
ings are constructed and warmed, it is obvious that a 
people cannot make any material progress unless the 
country they inhabit has a considerable degree of fer- 
tility — and is also supplied with sufficient wood and tim- 
ber, iron and other metals, or is so situated that they 
can easily procure from foreign nations, all the timber, 
metals, and other products which they may need. The 
want of such resources and products in sufficient quan- 
tities, if they cannot be easily procured, form great imped- 
iments, and often insuperable obstacles, to national pro- 
gress. 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 89 



4th. The extreme aridity of a country y and its subjection to 
extreme droughts. 

Large portions of Africa and Western Asia, lying be- 
tween the tropics and the thirty-third degree of latitude, 
are so arid that they produce but little without irrigation 
and great labor. Southern as well as Northern Africa 
within these latitudes is so arid, and subject to so long 
and severe droughts, that it is nearly worthless. Such 
is the case also with Arabia and the most of Southern 
Persia. The most of Egypt is a desert, and the valley of 
the Nile would be nearly worthless, for want of rain, were 
it not for the annual overflow of the waters which come 
down from the torrid zone. 

Sahara is rendered a desert by its aridity. Give it 
sixty inches of rain annually, as many warm countries 
have, and it would soon be supplied with springs and 
brooks, ponds and lakes, rivulets and rivers, forests and 
an abundant vegetation. The hills of barren, blowing 
sand formed by the winds upon the eastern shore of Lake 
Michigan, produce trees and shrubs of various kinds, and 
even grape-vines, upon their sides and tops, from two 
hundred to three hundred feet above the lake. Such 
facts are sufficient to show that there is scarcely any 
earth too poor to produce vegetation and a growth of 
timber, if it be favored with sufficient moisture and heat. 
Aridity and frost must be regarded as the principal causes 
of barrenness. 

All the deserts of the world lie between those latitudes, 
or in the interior of great continents. In Egypt, Arabia, 
and many other countries lying in those latitudes, as well 
as in the great desert of Sahara, it rarely ever rains ; 
and nearly every country lying within them is subject to 
great irregularities in the annual fall of water, and to oc- 
casional droughts, which are terribly destructive. Such 
is the case with Buenos Ayres, part of Hindostan, and 
a large part of Australia, as well as the southern parts 
of Persia, Mesopotamia, and Palestine. Even the Canary 
Islands have been subject to occasional severe droughts, 
which caused great distress. 



90 » IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 



5th. An interior situation, and the want of navigable 
rivers and bays, lakes and watercourses. 

If a country has large natural resources, a surplus of 
some kinds of products, and is favorably situated for 
commerce, its deficiencies may be supplied by commerce 
with foreign nations. But if it be in the interior of a 
continent, without navigable rivers or watercourses, canals 
or railways to facilitate commerce, its surplus products 
will be of little value ; and if it is not favored with suffi- 
cient timber, iron, and other metals, its inhabitants can 
never make much progress in productive industry, wealth, 
or civilization. Commerce is the agent which makes the 
surplus products of one country or people, available to 
supply the wants of others. The want of natural facili- 
ties for commerce is, therefore, a great impediment to the 
progress of a people. 

No people can make much progress in industry, wealth, 
or civilization, without an extensive commerce, either do- 
mestic or foreign — or both. Navigable rivers and bays, 
lakes and other watercourses, constitute the natural chan- 
nels and highways of internal commerce, without which it 
could not exist, before the age of railways. Even canals 
cannot be constructed without rivers or lakes and water- 
courses, to supply them with water. The most of the in- 
terior of the continent of Africa is nearly valueless, for 
want of such natural facilities and highways for commerce. 



6th. The want of good Harbors. 

Harbors are necessary to the coasting trade, as well as 
to foreign commerce ; and without good harbors it is im- 
possible for a people to attain a high rank as a commer- 
cial nation. Great Britain is greatly indebted to her 
numerous fine harbors, as well as to her mines and man- 
ufactures, for her commercial supremacy ; and the United 
States are also greatly indebted for their rapid progress, 
to their fine harbors, noble bays and rivers, and great 
interior lakes. 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 9 1 



7th. A very limited and small extent of country. 

A small country can furnish fields of employment and 
supply the wants of only a comparatively small number 
of inhabitants. An industrious and progressive people 
soon occupy all its territory, and develop all its resources, 
and increase in numbers to the full extent of its capacity 
to furnish them a support ; and when that condition is 
attained, it is impossible for the people to make any fur- 
ther progress, either in productive industry or wealth ; 
and all further increase in numbers must be at the ex- 
pense of the comforts of the people — unless they can in- 
crease their means of subsistence by means of foreign 
commerce and navigation, successful war and conquest, 
or by emigrating and colonizing new countries. 

The Hollanders were superior in industry and com- 
merce, enterprise and wealth, to the people of England, 
France, or any other country of Europe, during the whole 
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and nearly 
all the eighteenth century also. The great difficulty they 
labored under was the small extent of their country, and 
its very limited natural resources — having no mines. If 
they had had such a country as the United States or 
France, to expand in, there is no reason to doubt that 
they would have become the most powerful as well as the 
most commercial nation in Europe. 

Much of the miseries of Ireland results from its large 
and crowded population, upon so limited a territory — not 
sufficient to furnish a field of employment and the means 
of a comfortable support, for so many people. The time 
must soon come, when it will be impossible to increase 
any further the productive industry of Great Britain, 
France, Germany, Italy, and many other countries of Eu- 
rope ; and when all further increase of their population 
can be productive of nothing but distress and misery, for 
want of employment and the means of subsistence — un- 
less the increase and the surplus of the population emi- 
grate. 



92 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

8th. An unhealthy Climate. 

It needs no extended argument or illustration to show 
that an unhealthy climate, by enfeebling the constitution 
of man, producing a large amount of sickness and mor- 
tality, and shortening human life, must lessen and impede 
industry, and constitute a very great obstacle to the rapid 
progress of a people in productive industry and wealth, 
numbers and power. 

gth. The Heat of the Torrid Zone, arid of countries bor- 
dering on it. 

A very hot climate is debilitating in its influences. It 
tends to enfeeble the constitution of man ; to excite and 
produce fevers, bowel complaints, and various other dis- 
eases ; to produce lassitude, debility, and indolence ; and 
to shorten human life. By inducing indolence, it pre- 
vents the development of the brain and the intellect, 
dwarfs the minds of a people, and produces inferiority 
of race. It is impossible for an inferior and indolent 
people to make much progress ; and hence a very hot 
climate, of itself, generates obstacles to the progress of a 
people. 

The brain is the seat of the intellect and its activities. 
The various parts of the brain constitute organs of the 
mind, which are developed and increased in size, activity, 
and strength, by the exercise of the mind. Necessity is 
truly the mother of invention, as it is of the activities 
and efforts necessary to make inventions. In hot cli- 
mates the intellect is not exercised upon the proper sub- 
jects, sufficiently to develop fully the judgment, the 
understanding, the highest order of reasoning faculties, 
and the powers of invention ; for two reasons — first, that 
the physical wants of the people are not such as require 
and induce either constant industry or great efforts — and 
secondly, that the influence of excessive heat is not favor- 
able to the development of the higher faculties of the 
mind. 

Excessive heat tends to stimulate the action of the 
animal organization to an excessive degree — to produce 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 93 

an early development of the system, and of the faculties 
— and to produce also exhaustion and debility, fevers 
and various other diseases, and shortness of life. It 
tends also to stimulate the senses to an inordinate 
degree — to render them quick and acute, and to make 
the perceptive faculties and the imagination, quick and 
active, and the mind sprightly, but fickle and unsteady 
— to unfit the mind for concentration and fixed attention 
for any considerable length of time upon one point ; and 
to unfit it for careful comparison, close analysis, and 
deep reasoning. Hence the people of hot climates are 
never distinguised for soundness of judgment, accuracy 
of reasoning, clearness and strength of understanding, 
or comprehensiveness of views. They never exhibit 
any inventive talent, and are very generally deficient in 
administrative talent, and energy of character. This 
reasoning does not apply, in full force, to persons born in 
the torrid zone of parents who emigrated from a temperate 
climate. 

Hot climates greatly increase lust, and also produce 
lassitude and indolence, and strong passions for amuse- 
ment. Great numbers of the people of hot climates 
burn with lust to such a degree, that chastity seems like 
an impossibility. The truth is, the passions are so 
strong in such climates, that a majority of the people 
scarcely regard chastity as a virtue. Such cases as 
Lot's daughters may not occur very frequently ; but such 
characters as Madam Potiphar, and the Egyptian Queen 
Cleopatra, are not uncommon in hot climates, but un- 
known in cold ones. If such be the character of women 
in hot climates, what may be expected of men ? We 
have reliable information that more than twenty years 
after the emancipation of the slaves of the British West 
Indies, more than half the births of the islands of Bar- 
badoes and Antigua, and of the city of Kingston, in 
Jamaica, were illegitimate.* So much licentiousness 
and promiscuous intercourse between the sexes never 
existed among pagan savages or barbarians, in any cold 
country. 

* See Sewall's Ordeal of Free Labor in the West Indies, pp. 41, 
114 — 116. 



94 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

Such mental deficiencies and moral characteristics and 
degradation, form insuperable impediments to much pro- 
gress among a people. All the progress they can make 
must come from borrowed elements. 

The preceding obstacles and impediments to progress, 
are all of the natural order. The following may be classed 
as artificial, which have been produced by man and the 
organization of society — except the tenth, which may be 
regarded as partly natural, and partly artificial. The 
mind, as well as the brain, being developed and improved 
by education and exercise, and also by reading, may be 
considered as in some measure artificial — its acquire- 
ments being mostly artificial — though its powers and 
faculties depend mostly upon the structure of the brain — 
which is partly inherited, and partly developed by edu- 
cation and exercise. 

Many vices and immoralities are partly natural, and 
partly artificial, in their origin and nature. So many 
seeds of depravity are deeply seated in the constitution 
and nature of some persons, that self-restraint, and con- 
formity to the strict rules of Christian morality, seem 
impossible. 



ioth. Feeble intellects — ignorance and superstition, im- 
moralities and vices. 

Nearly all the elements and instruments of progress 
being artificial — invented by the intellect and genius of 
man— they require intellect and intelligence to use them 
advantageously. Hence a defect or weakness of natural in- 
tellect, and a want of intelligence and knowledge of the 
principles and instruments of mechanism, are both great 
impediments to the progress of a people. 

Superstition is something worse than mere ignorance ; 
for it misleads the mind, and leads individuals and nations 
to do wrong — which is often more injurious to the pros- 
perity of the world, than indolence and inactivity. 

Immoralities and gross vices, not only dissipate the 
mind and its faculties, and produce indolence and pro- 
digality — but they also lead to crime, and produce dis- 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 95 

ease, and tend to shorten human life. They therefore 
form .very great impediments to the progress of a nation. 
All these evils exist to a much greater extent in hot 
climates than they do in temperate and cold ones — for 
the reason — first, that excessive heat is unfavorable to 
the developemnt of intellect and moral sense, and pro- 
duces a tendency to indolence, licentiousness and vice, 
(as has been shown heretofore) ; and secondly, that de- 
fects of intellect, and all weaknesses and vices of char- 
acter, are more or less transmitted from one generation 
to another — so that each generation in a hot climate, in- 
herits in some measure, the defects and weaknesses of 
their ancestors — while those of cold climates inherit the 
better developed brains, the better balanced minds, and 
the firmer and more energetic characteristics of their an- 
cestors. 

nth. An excessive Use of Intoxicating Liquors, and par- 
ticularly of distilled spirits. 

The ancients had wines and fermented liquors, but no 
distilled spirits to intoxicate the brain, inflame the pas- 
sions, and derange the intellect. Distilled spirits have 
great medicinal powers and virtues ; but as common 
beverages and social agents, they are terribly pernicious. 
When taken in such quantities as to affect the brain very 
perceptibly, they lessen the sensibility, tend to confuse 
the mind, and excite the natural propensities and pas- 
sions — often to such a degree as to give them control 
over the reason. 

A very considerable portion of the people of many 
modern nations, have been injured by the excessive use 
of intoxicating liquors — their personal expenses have 
been greatly increased by it — their industry and energy, 
their prudence and business capacity lessened, and their 
lives shortened ; and thousands have been utterly ruined 
by such agents, and by opium also. We should, there- 
fore, class the excessive use of such things, among the 
impediments to the progress of a people. 

Properly used, in particular conditions of the system, 
and as medicines, both alcoholic liquors and opium have 



96 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

been great blessings to man ; when improperly used, and 
in excess, they have been great evils. The evils result- 
ing from the excessive use of intoxicating liquors are ten, 
and perhaps twenty times as great as they were in the 
time of the Romans — before the invention of the art of 
distillation. 

To regulate the use of such things by law, and enforce 
the regulations, is a matter of so great difficulty and deli- 
cacy, that but little progress seems to have been made in 
that direction. Though temporarily successful in the 
country and in villages, they have failed to have the de- 
sired effect in cities ; and have proved to be more or less 
delusive. The most that has been done successfully, has 
been to lessen the number of vendors by high licenses, — 
to close all places of sale on the Sabbath, and after a 
certain hour in the evening, and to prohibit the sale to 
students, minors, and drunkards. 

1 2 th. Habits of indolence and dissipation. 

The same train of reasoning which shows that habits 
of industry and economy are elements of progress, shows 
also that habits of indolence and dissipation are obstacles 
to progress. Their influence is not simply negative, but 
both positive and negative. They seem to dissipate and 
enfeeble the mind — to destroy self-control and energy of 
character — to demoralize the individual and unfit him 
for any continuous and regular pursuit, to make him the 
sport of circumstances, and often subject him to the influ- 
ence of boon companions. Indolence and the pursuit of 
amusements very generally become the grave of talent 
and character. 

The heat of the torrid zone, and of all hot climates, 
tends to relax the muscles — to produce lassitude and a 
sense of weariness after slight exertions, and to induce 
habits of indolence. 

13th. Gross Superstitions, Infanticide, and other human 
sacrifices. 

Gross superstitions serve to darken and mislead 
the human mind, and are great stumbling blocks and ob- 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 97 

stacles to the acquisition of knowledge, and to the proper 
exercise and development of the intellect and the moral 
feelings. 

Infanticide, and other human sacrifices, degrade the opin- 
ions, harden and brutalize the feelings, destroy the con- 
science and moral sense, and all sense of justice, and 
thoroughly demoralize a people, and unfit them for na- 
tional progress. 

14th. The Mahometan Religion. 

The Koran and the Mahometan religion sanctify ag- 
gression and predatory warfare and plunder, despotism 
and slavery, polygamy and concubinage. By encouraging 
war and plunder, slaughter and rapine, it has destroyed 
the lives of millions of human beings, devastated many 
countries and provinces, rendered property insecure in 
all countries where it prevails, discouraged and paralyz- 
ed industry and business, and all the agencies of national 
progress, and reduced to semi-barbarism some of the 
best portions of the world. Its corrupt tendencies and 
paralyzing influences upon the mind, are greater than 
those of the superstitions of any pagan nation of anti- 
quity. 

15 th. The Inquisition. 

The Inquisition was the greatest scourge and obstacle 
to progress which ever existed in Christian countries. It 
was first established by the Pope in the south of France, 
in the early part of the 1 3th century, with the assent of 
the king — to root out what was deemed the heresies of 
the Albigenses.* It was established in Spain in the 15th 
century, to aid in crushing out Mahometanism ; and in 
Portugal, Italy and other countries for similar purposes. 

The number of its victims was few, compared with 
its paralyzing influence upon freedom of thought, freedom 
of inquiry, the free expression of opinions, and every germ 
and means of human progress. It destroyed or silenced 

* See vol. 1 st, p. 85 to 87, of these essays. 
5 



98 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

every person inclined to freedom of inquiry, and the free 
expression of opinions, and crushed out every means of 
improvement in either theological or moral, political or 
natural science ; and as mechanical science is dependent 
to a great extent, upon natural science for its develop- 
ment and progress, it paralyzed and obstructed its progress 
also. Such was its depressing and paralyzing influence, 
that there never was a mechanical invention made of any 
importance, nor any discovery in natural science, in any 
country where the Inquisition was in operation. All the 
energies of the people under such influences, were turned 
into the channels of war and conquest, explorations and 
colonization. 

1 6th. Monastic Orders — Monasteries and Nunneries. 

Monastic orders and monasteries have had considera- 
ble influence in some countries, in withdrawing men from 
the walks of productive industry, and secluding them 
from secular pursuits and society, to live mostly in idle- 
ness, upon the industry of others, and upon the income 
of property withdrawn from the active portion of society, 
and dedicated to such purposes. They are impediments 
to national progress, because they withdraw a great 
number of laborers, and a large amount of capital, from 
the active walks of life, and render both the persons and 
the capital useless to society. 

Nunneries have some influence, also, in withdrawing 
persons from the active walks of life, and consigning 
them to lives of comparative inactivity and indolence ; but 
to a much less extent than monasteries. The labor of 
women is properly in-doors, and they can manufacture 
numerous articles for sale, in nunneries as well as else- 
where. Schools for the education of girls are also very 
generally connected with nunneries, and the nuns are 
usefully employed in teaching ; but they might be more 
generally and usefully occupied in teaching boys as well 
as girls, and in other employments, if there were no such 
institutions. 

This is the economical and philosophical view of the 
subject ; there are differences of opinion upon the relig- 
ious view of it. 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 99 



17th. The Monopoly of large amounts of Property by 
Churches and Ecclesiastics. 

The appropriation of "lands and other property to 
religious and ecclesiastical uses, withdraws them from 
taxation for the support of the government, or for any 
national, local, or public improvement, or even for the 
education of the people ; and throws the whole burden 
of taxation, for all public secular purposes, upon other 
property, and upon the people. The monopoly of large 
amounts of property by churches and ecclesiastics, and 
the withdrawal thereof from secular purposes, has been 
productive of much evil in many countries of Europe. 
It was felt to be so great an evil in England that a sec- 
tion was inserted in the great Charter of Henry III. 
(known as the statute of mortmain) to limit and re- 
strain the appropriation of lands to such purposes. 

Mr. Hallam, in his " History of the Middle Ages," says, 
that the ecclesiastics, churches, and monasteries "did 
enjoy nearly one-half of England." They controlled per- 
haps a fourth part of all the property of Southern and 
Western Europe, during the Middle Ages ; and about 
the same proportion in Naples and some other countries, 
until a comparatively recent period. That great evil 
was one of the principal and most efficient causes of the 
French revolution of 1789, and was swept away by it. 

At least one-third part of all the property in the cities 
of Mexico, and great numbers of large landed estates in 
the country, are held in the same manner, much to the 
injury of the people of that distracted country. Such a 
monopoly is a gigantic evil, which constitutes a great im- 
pediment to the progress of any people. 

1 8th. The Feudal System, and the oppressive powers and 
privileges of the feudal aristocracy — growing out of it. 

The evils of the feudal system, and of the oppressive 
powers and privileges growing out of it, are too obvious 
and too well known and understood, to need anything 
more than a general reference to them. In connection 



100 * IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

with the monopolies of the church and of the ecclesiasti- 
cal and monastic orders in France, to which reference 
has been made, they constituted the principal and almost 
the only efficient causes of the great French revolution 
of 1789, and of the terrible massacres and bloody wars 
growing out of it. The masses of the people were 
generally friendly to the king and the monarchy, but ter- 
ribly hostile to the feudal aristocracy and the clergy. 

Fortunately the whole fabric of feudalism in France 
was swept away by the revolution ; and the wars of 
Napoleon and his great code of laws, eventually under- 
mined and overturned the feudal system in nearly all 
southern and central Europe. 

Every intelligent and candid person will recognize the 
evils of the feudal system, and of the oppressive powers 
and privileges of the feudal aristocracy, as very great im- 
pediments to the progress of Europe during nearly ten 
centuries. Dominant feudal and military, landed and ec- 
clesiastical aristocracies, have ever been impediments to 
progress in every country where they, or either of them, 
have ever existed. On the contrary, commercial and man- 
ufacturing aristocracies are consistent with free institu- 
tions, and are promotive of industry, and of the develop- 
ment of the agricultural and mineral resources of a 
country. This is verified by the histories of Tyre and 
Carthage, Venice and Genoa, Holland and England, Mas- 
sachusetts and Rhode Island. 

19th. Religious Delusions and Prejudices, Intolerance and 
Ecclesiastical Ambition. 

Among the causes of the most terrible scourges which 
have ever afflicted the human family, may be reckoned 
religious delusions and prejudices, intolerance of opinion 
and ecclesiastical ambition. Mahomet, (the Arabian 
prophet,) was a religious enthusiast — under the influence 
of strange delusions of opinion ; but it may well be doubt- 
ed if he was an impostor. He had a fervid imagination, 
and was subject to epileptic fits, accompanied with spas- 
modic convulsions, which probably caused temporary pe- 
riods of lunacy ; and the visions and dreams, phantoms 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 10 1 

and images which passed through his mind at such pe- 
riods, left impressions which seemed realities when sanity 
returned. Such impressions being often repeated con- 
firmed him more and more in the belief that they came 
directly from the Deity, and that he had been selected by 
God as a prophet, to proclaim new revelations and a new 
system of religion. The Mahometan religion may there- 
fore be regarded as produced by the joint influence of a 
fervid imagination, religious enthusiasm, and physical 
disease — producing phantoms of the imagination, and 
perhaps, also, occasionally delusions of the senses ; all of 
which concurred in producing strong delusion of opinion, 
and fixed ideas. There is no reason to doubt that he had 
temporary periods of lunacy, and that the impressions 
made upon his brain at such periods, produced fixed ideas 
and religious monomania. 

Some alienist physicians maintain that the brain and 
nervous system of man are so formed, that all parts are 
never so perfectly adapted to each other as to render the 
perceptions and the impressions, the reasoning and all 
the action of the mind, perfect ; and that there is no such 
thing as perfect sanity in man ; that the highest mani- 
festations of intellect are produced by an inordinate de- 
gree of activity of some of the organs of the brain — pro- 
ducing what are known as exaltations of mind ; which 
destroy the balance of the intellectual faculties ; produce 
inertia in some of the organs of the brain ; and cause 
weakness, if not veritable monomania on some subjects. 
There is much force in the views they take of imperfec- 
tions in the operations of the brain and intellect — even 
of persons that are regarded as having the best minds. 

The phenomena of numerous cases of insanity, and the 
career and action of many eccentric persons who were 
supposed to be tinged, at times, with monomania, and yet 
exhibited great powers of intellect -upon some questions 
and subjects, together with the various views which dif- 
ferent persons take of the same subject, all concur to 
show the imperfection of human reasoning, and of all the 
operations of the human mind. There is, in fact, no pre- 
cise dividing line between sanity and insanity — between 
the action of the reason and that of the imagination — be- 



102 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

tween the views of the understanding and the vagaries 
and dreams of the fancy. No person was ever insane 
upon all questions and subjects. Sincere and devoted 
persons, of fervid imagination and great enthusiasm, may 
be easily deceived and deluded with the impression and 
belief that their own views and natural reasoning are 
caused by the direct influence of the Deity. 

Owing to the imperfection of all human reasoning and 
the liability to delusion of opinion, all persons, and Chris- 
tians in particular, should have charity and toleration for 
the religious opinions of others, however widely they 
may differ from their own. 

In the time of the Emperor Constantine, a mischievous 
delusion crept into the Church — that the cause of Chris- 
tianity and the peace of the country required uniformity 
of opinion and faith in religious matters, and uniformity 
of religious worship ; and that all persons whom the ma- 
jority of the bishops and clergy should condemn as here- 
tics, should be treated and punished as criminals. 

Under the influence of the Church, misled by that mis- 
chievous delusion, the Roman emperors passed laws to 
crush out what they deemed heresy, to punish dissent- 
ing preachers, and to prohibit, under severe penalties, 
religious services not in accordance with the orthodox 
Church. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, 
the monarchs of Europe passed similar laws ; the Inqui- 
sition was established in Spain and several other coun- 
tries, and laws were enacted in England to burn heretics. 
The execution of such barbarous laws excited dissensions 
and violent opposition, great tumults and assassinations, 
mobs and massacres, insurrections and civil wars, which 
filled the world with slaughter and carnage, devastation 
and desolation, for more than a thousand years ; caused 
the fail and destruction of the Roman Empire, and the 
triumph of the Mahometans over all Western and South- 
western Asia, Northern Africa, and a portion of Europe. 

Religious delusions and prejudices, and intolerance of 
opinion, stimulated by ecclesiastical ambition, have ex- 
cited more barbarous and bloody wars and cruel massa- 
cres, than mercantile avarice or military ambition. These 
things should be classed among the greatest obstacles to 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 103 

the progress of the arts of peace and industry, and to the 
spread of Christianity and civilization, which the human 
family have encountered during the last fifteen centuries. 
Religious delusions and prejudices among Christian 
nations have been diminishing, and the spirit of intol- 
erance has been relaxing, during the last three centuries 
and more ; and I hope the day is not far distant, when 
they will all pass away, and religious liberty and Chris- 
tianity will prevail throughout the world. 

20th. Wars and Insurrections. 

Wars are not only very destructive to human life, and 
productive of distress and suifering to great numbers of 
individuals and families, and often to whole communities, 
but they consume and exhaust very rapidly the resources 
of a nation. National progress can be made only in a 
time of peace. Defensive wars are very generally just 
and necessary to protect the rights of a people ; but they 
render heavy and oppressive taxation necessary, and are 
never favorable to national progress. Aggressive wars 
are sometimes just ; but they are very generally prose- 
cuted without cause or provocation of sufficient magni- 
tude to justify them, the evils produced by them being 
vastly greater than the wrongs complained of. Remon- 
strances, commercial restrictions, and finally non-inter- 
course, may generally be made more effectual than war, 
to secure a redress of grievances. Aggressive war 
should never be resorted to except to redress very great 
wrongs. 

Wars, insurrections and tumults may be reckoned 
among the greatest obstacles to the progress of nations. 
Frequent wars among the Indian tribes of America, and 
the great destruction of life occasioned by them, may be 
regarded as one of the principal causes of the sparse pop- 
ulation of the continent when it was first colonized by 
Europeans, and of the decrease of the natives during the 
last three centuries. 

The Chinese and Japanese have always cultivated the 
arts of peace, and have never waged a foreign war ; and 
hence the wonderful increase and density of their popu- 



104 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

lation. Nearly all the nations of the earth have been too 
much inclined to wage war, for causes that are trivial in 
their nature, when compared with the evils necessarily 
attending it. 

2 1 st. Large Standing Annies, 

Large standing armies are obstacles to the progress of 
nations in various ways. They withdraw a large number 
of able-bodied men from productive industry ; they im- 
pose heavy taxes and great burdens on the country and 
its industry to maintain them ; and lastly, they become 
instruments of despotism in the hands of the monarch, 
who keeps them to maintain his arbitrary power, and 
hold the people in subjection. The people of Great 
Britain owe their liberties to their insular situation and 
the absence of large standing armies, more than to any 
other cause. It was their insular situation which ren- 
dered large standing armies unnecessary, and prevented 
their kings from keeping them. 

2 2d. Forced Military Service in time of Peace, and in 
foreign Wars. 

The power to compel men to serve in a foreign war, or 
to render military service in time of peace — (except to aid 
when called on to execute the laws) — constitutes the very 
essence of despotism. It is not consistent with civil lib- 
erty, nor with the principles of a free government. 

The Constitution of the United States gives to Con- 
gress, power to provide for calling forth and compelling 
the militia to aid in executing the laws of the Union, to 
suppress insurrections and repel invasions ; but for no 
other purpose. The federal government has no power to 
compel men to render military service in a foreign war 
beyond the boundaries of the United States, unless they 
enlist voluntarily ; nor has it any power to compel mili- 
tary service at home, except to aid in executing the laws, 
to suppress insurrections, and repel invasions. 

The experience of the United States and of the Con- 
federate States during the late terrible and wicked rebel- 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 105 

lion, shows the efficiency and availability of the military 
power granted to the federal government, and that it is 
entirely sufficient for all proper and useful purposes. In 
fact, it goes to the very verge and boundaries of despot- 
ism, and is all the power which can be granted to any 
government, with safety to civil liberty and the rights of 
the citizen. The government of any civilized people 
which cannot be sustained by such means, but requires 
in time of peace a large standing army raised by con- 
scription and compulsory service to sustain it, does not 
deserve to be sustained. The last remark is not intend- 
ed to apply to such countries as Mexico and Central 
America, or any other country lying in the torrid zone, 
where three-fourths of the people are scarcely half 
civilized. 

An unlimited power to compel military service may be 
necessary to maintain large standing armies — to support 
despotic governments — to. enable them to restrain the 
liberty of speech and the freedom of the Press — to aid in 
putting down all movements for a reform or change of 
the government — and to keep the Sovereign in readiness 
at all times to wage war with his neighbors ; but it is by 
no means necessary to maintain a good and efficient 
government for and over a free and intelligent people. 

The most of the institutions of France are of a liberal 
character, befitting a highly civilized and intelligent peo- 
ple. France has an excellent code of laws, an enlight- 
ened administration of justice, a good and efficient police, 
various institutions of learning, and a tolerably good rep- 
resentative system of legislation and of local administra- 
tion ; and the people would soon be in the enjoyment of 
a full measure of civil liberty, even under a hereditary 
monarchy — were it not for two great and gigantic evils, 
which constantly menace them — first, a very large stand- 
ing army ; and secondly, compulsory military service, to 
enable the sovereign to maintain that army, and keep it 
as large as he may desire. 

Take from the government of France the power to 
compel citizens to render military service except in such 
cases as our federal government possesses that great 
power — the army then depending entirely upon volun- 

5* 



106 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

tary enlistments, would soon dwindle down to compara- 
tively small and proper dimensions ; the controlling 
power of the sovereign over legislation would soon 
cease ; liberty of speech and the freedom of the press 
upon political subjects would be established, and their 
power would be felt ; popular opinion would gain strength 
and influence ; and the government would become more 
liberal and popular in its character, than that of England. 
The same remarks may be applied to the people and 
the government of Prussia. They have a fine code 
of laws, an enlightened administration of justice, an ad- 
mirable system of education, and a tolerably good repre- 
sentative system of legislation, and of local administra- 
tion ; but are oppressed with a large standing army, and 
a compulsory system of military service. So long as the 
governments of France and Prussia retain their present 
compulsory military system, they will maintain large 
standing armies, oppress the people, not only with forced 
military service, but also with unnecessary taxes and bur- 
dens, and deprive them of the essence of civil liberty. 

23 d. Insecurity of Property. 

Of all the impediments to the progress of a nation, 
no one is more effective than the insecurity of property. 
No matter what the cause of insecurity may be, whether 
it be a state of demoralization and continual anarchy, 
and frequent thefts, robberies and murders, by reason 
thereof — the frequent incursion and plunder of outside 
barbarians, or hostile enemies — the rapacity, lawlessness 
and arbitrary taxation and exactions of officers unre- 
strained by a good code of laws and a regular and enlight- 
ened administration of justice — or any other cause of in- 
security — the effect is the same. Men will not labor 
diligently to raise crops, or to produce anything, unless 
there is a reasonable certainty that they will enjoy the 
products of their industry. 

Ail the causes of insecurity enumerated have existed, 
and the most of them exist constantly, in Turkey in 
Asia ; and some of them in Turkey in Europe also. Na- 
tional progress is impossible under such a state of things. 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. I07 

The Mahometan religion, by sanctioning aggressive war 
and plunder, of all who do not profess the Musselman 
faith, has so thoroughly demoralized nearly the whole 
people where it rules, that the public officers are more 
generally corrupt, oppressive and rapacious, than they 
ever have been under any other system or country, 
whether civilized, savage or barbarian — Jewish or Chris- 
tian, pagan or philosophic — professing no religion. 

For more than twelve centuries the Arabs and other peo- 
ple who embraced the Mahometan faith have been plun- 
derers and robbers on land, and pirates at sea. Their 
system of government and predatory warfare have de- 
vastated and reduced to semi-barbarism all south-western 
Asia, and northern Africa. 

There has rarely been any security for property under 
Mahometan rule ; and under such influences, all the 
countries subjected to it were gradually sinking for centu- 
ries, until it was impossible for them to sink any lower. 

24th. Chattel Slavery. 

Slavery is the natural product of hot climates, and 
of warm climates also, when religious influences do not 
counteract it. It is an exotic in a cold climate. 

Many northern people have not only regarded slavery 
as the principal evil in our country, but as the principal 
and almost the only impediment to its prosperity and 
progress. They entirely overlook the influences of cli- 
mate, and attribute to slavery much that should be charged 
to the heat of the Southern States. That slavery as a 
system is unjust to the slave in all climates, must be con- 
ceded. But how far it is an impediment to the progress 
of a nation, is a very different question. That a slave as a 
general rule will not labor as cheerfully and diligently 
for the benefit of his master, in a cold or temperate cli- 
mate, as he would for himself, if he were free, is very 
certain. That African negroes will do more labor in the 
torrid zone, or in any hot climate under the compulsory 
slave system, than the same persons would do in a state 
of freedom, is proven by the history of St. Domingo, and 
of the British West India islands. 



108 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

Slavery tends to degrade and discourage industry, and 
to demoralize a people in cold and temperate climates, 
and to some extent in hot ones also ; but as hot climates 
produce the same effects without slavery, the evil influ- 
ence of slavery upon industry there, is more than com- 
pensated by the compulsory system of labor inaugurated 
and enforced by the slaveholders. If this reasoning be 
correct (and I think it is), slavery operates as an imped- 
iment to the progress of people and nations in cold, and 
also in temperate climates, but not in the torrid zone — 
nor in some hot countries lying below the 33d degree 
of latitude. 

Slavery causes an unequal and an unjust distribution 
of the products of industry as between master and slave, 
in hot climates as well as in cold, and enables the former 
to live in luxury upon the industry of the latter. It does 
not however lessen, but on the contrary, by means of 
compulsory labor, it augments the aggregate industry 
and income of the community. 

25 th. Excessive Taxation, and also Despotism, and Tyranny 
of any kind. 

Excessive taxation is always oppressive to large classes 
of the people, tends to exhaust the incomes of the 
community, and to prevent improvement and the accumu- 
lation of capital and wealth. 

The exercise of arbitrary power and tyranny of any 
kind, tends to restrain and shackle the human mind, to 
check industry, and to retard enterprise. Excessive 
taxation and tyranny both operate as impediments to na- 
tional progress. 

26th. Laws of Primogeniture, and the custom of Entail- 
ing Property. 

Laws of primogeniture — making the eldest son the 
heir, to the exclusion of all the younger children, have 
been established in many countries of Europe, to build 
up and maintain an aristocracy, or nobility. The system 
of entailing lands for an indefinite succession of genera- 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. IO9 

tions to the eldest male issue, if there be any, was invent- 
ed to attain the same ends, and aid the laws of primo- 
geniture, to accomplish the same purposes. An aristocracy 
thus built up and sustained, may properly be termed arti- 
ficial. To republican eyes such laws and customs seem 
grossly unjust, as well as impolitic. 

The ordinary operations of God's laws and providen- 
ces, produce wonderful differences in the natural faculties 
and talents of men, and fit some to be leaders in business, 
in industrial pursuits, in great enterprises, and in mat- 
ters of government, and in war ; and fit a vast majority 
of mankind for the humble pursuits of life only. Supe- 
rior natural talents, with proper education, industry and 
economy, tend to raise some persons to wealth, social 
position and influence above the masses of the people — 
and to create what may be termed a natural aristoa'acy. 
This kind of aristocracy exists to some extent in all 
countries, and under all systems of government, as well 
as in monarchies. 

Nature's aristocracy are distinguished for industry and 
energy of character, and generally for virtue and lives of 
usefulness, as well as for talent. On the contrary, the 
artificial aristocracy built up and maintained by the laws 
of primogeniture and the system of entails, are gene- 
rally distinguished only by birth, wealth and position, 
and by the influence which their artificial advantages 
give them ; and the tendency of such laws and customs 
is, to give them wealth and social position, influence and 
power, without personal effort — to foster pride and indo- 
lence, and to encourage luxury and extravagance, frivo- 
lous amusements and gambling. They make great num- 
bers of persons idle seekers after amusement, to kill time, 
who might otherwise be actively and profitably em- 
ployed. 

The monopoly of a large portion of the real estate of 
a nation by a comparatively few families, tends to reduce 
the masses of the people to a condition of dependence, 
nearly equivalent to a state of servitude, and is of itself 
a great evil. Under the system of entails and primo- 
geniture, as they exist in England, the number of 
proprietors of lands is constantly diminishing, by the 



IIO IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

purchase of small estates by the great proprietors, and 
also by two estates sometimes coming by descent into the 
same hands. The evil is therefore constantly increasing. 
By producing injustice, the system necessarily produces 
more or less dissatisfaction, and may contribute largely to 
produce a revolution in Great Britain, as similar causes 
did in France. It is the greatest evil now impending 
over, and threatening the welfare and safety of that 
country. 

Such laws and customs were all swept away in our 
country during the revolution, which made us a nation, 
or within a few years after its close. In any rational 
view which can be taken of them, they must be regarded 
as impediments to the progress of a nation. 

2 7th. The Importation of Foreign Manufactures and L uxu- 
ries without duty, or for very low duties. 

The power of modern machinery for manufacturing 
purposes is truly wonderful. Great Britain, France and 
Germany have great numbers of skilled laborers, and 
with the aid of machinery, can manufacture cloths of all 
kinds, iron, hardware, and various articles of luxury, in 
much larger quantities than are required to supply the 
markets of the world, and at much cheaper rates than 
other nations, where skilled labor and capital are both 
scarce. They can soon supply and surfeit the markets 
of any country, where their goods are admitted on the 
payment of low duties ; and the question with them is, 
where they can find markets at any price above the cost 
of production. 

For want of capital, skilled laborers, experience, and 
extensive markets, it is impossible for new and agricul- 
tural countries to compete in manufactures on equal 
terms with those older countries of Europe ; and the 
consequence is, that their markets are supplied with for- 
eign goods, and their manufactures are supplanted and 
destroyed, unless they are incidentally aided by large 
duties on imports which compete with them. 

Taxes levied by duties on imports are generally paid 
about equally by the consumer and the producer ; that is, 






IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. Ill 

every dollar of duty levied, which must be paid by the 
importer, raises the price of the article to the consumer 
about fifty cents ; and the fo'reign manufacturer or pro- 
ducer must submit to a reduction in the price of his 
goods to the amount of fifty cents. The domestic man- 
ufacturer gets the advantage of the enhanced price for 
his products, without any special tax ; and though the 
consumer must pay the increase, he gets the full benefit 
of it, in the advantages of new and enlarged markets, an 
increased demand and enhanced prices for labor and all 
domestic products, and the increased prosperity of the 
country ; and when domestic manufactures become well 
established, and their products become large, their com- 
petition with foreign products tends to reduce prices still 
more, and to throw nearly the whole of the duties upon 
the foreign manufacturer. 

Heavy duties on imports serve many useful purposes : 

ist. They aid largely in supporting the government — 
that being the best and least burdensome mode of levy- 
ing taxes, as it imposes a part of the burden upon the 
foreign producer. 

2d. They tend to check and lessen imports, to confine 
them to such articles as are most needed, to limit the 
amount to such sum as the people can pay for, and to 
prevent a balance of trade against the country, and the 
accumulation of a foreign debt. 

3d. They incidentally encourage domestic industry, and 
aid in building up domestic manufactures. 

4th. By increasing the domestic supply of manufac- 
tured goods, they tend to reduce prices. 

Allow the importation of foreign manufactures and 
luxuries into a new country, or into any agricultural coun- 
try, free of duty, or upon the payment of very small duties, 
and the tendency always is to excessive importations — 
more than the people can pay for ; to produce a balance 
of trade against the country, the accumulation of a for- 
eign debt, large exports of specie, so long as they have 
any specie to pay, frequent panics, and commercial, finan- 
cial, and industrial embarrassments, attended occasionally 
with a general depression and prostration of the business 
and the industry of the country. Any system, which 



112 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

produces such results, may well be regarded as a very- 
great impediment to the progress and prosperity of a 
country. 

The free importation of breadstuffs and provisions, and 
materials to be manufactured, has no such injurious influ- 
ence upon the prosperity of a country. Such things being 
necessary to supply real wants, which are limited in their 
nature, and not to gratify artificial wants, suggested by 
pride and fancy, which have no natural limits, there is no 
great danger of their being imported in excessive quan- 
tities. Trade in such articles should not therefore be 
governed by the same rules as trade in manufactures and 
luxuries. To allow free trade in the former is, generally, 
sound national policy, while importations of the latter 
should always be subject to duty. 

The industry and prosperity of the United States have 
been very much impeded at several different periods, by 
large importations of foreign manufactures and luxuries, 
upon the payment of low duties. Soon after the close 
of our revolutionary war, the energies of the country were 
completely crushed by large importations, upon the pay- 
ment, in many instances, of no duties at all, and in others 
of very trifling duties. The evils experienced from such 
importations, were the leading cause which induced the 
formation and adoption of the Constitution of the United 
States. 

28th. The Ownership of large Amounts of Property ', by 
residents of other coiuttries. 

The evils of the ownership of large amounts of prop- 
erty by residents of other countries, have been most 
palpable and striking in the case of Ireland. Absentee 
landlordism has had a terribly depressing influence upon 
Ireland, during many centuries. Probably not far from 
half of the property of Ireland is owned, by landlords 
and persons living in England. Perhaps two-fifths of 
all the products of the property so owned, go to the 
landlords and owners thereof, for rents and profits — being 
exported to England and sold there for their benefit — ■ 
and the other three-fifths pay the taxes, furnish the seed, 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 113 

and compensate the tenants for their labor. If such be 
the case (and the supposition cannot be far from the 
truth) one-fifth part of all the agricultural products of 
Ireland are sent out of the country, to pay absentee 
landlords for the rent of the lands and property owned 
by them, without any return whatever to the people of 
Ireland. 

Everything that the people of Great Britain export, 
they get a full compensation for, in the form of imports 
— or in bonds or stocks from which they derive annually 
an income — which comes to them in the shape of the 
precious metals, or such products of other countries as 
they want. But about one-fifth part of all the products 
of the soil of Ireland, is exported to pay the rents due to 
absentee landlords, without the people of Ireland deriv- 
ing any advantage from it whatever, either directly or 
indirectly. 

If all those absentee landlords lived in Ireland, and 
many of them kept up splendid establishments there, as 
they do now in England, they would keep a large 
retinue of Irish servants, patronize Irish merchants, and 
Irish mechanics and shopkeepers ; help ta support Irish 
schools and churches, and Irish professional men and 
newspapers ; and aid in sustaining all the institutions of 
the country. If such were the case, all the products of 
the country would be enjoyed by the people thereof; 
and Ireland could sustain a population of five millions 
as well as it can now sustain four millions of inhabitants. 
The evils of such a state of things can be easily under- 
stood, without any further illustration or argument. 

The evils of the monopoly of the lands of a country 
by a few resident landlords, generally operate very op- 
pressively upon the laboring classes ; but the evils are 
aggravated five or tenfold, when such monopoly is in 
the hands of non-resident landlords. 

The situation of the peasantry of British India is 
very similar to that of the poor tenants in Ireland of 
absentee landlords. The East India Company firstly, 
and now the government of India, act as if the title and 
proprietorship of all the lands were vested in the govern- 
ment. They treat the peasantry as mere occupiers, or 



1 14 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

tenants from year to year, without title, and exact from 
them about half the gross products of the soil as a tax, 
or rent. 

All the officers, both civil and military, including the 
principal revenue officers, assessors and collectors of 
taxes, are from Great Britain, and have enormous 
salaries. The most of them are single men, and a large 
portion of those that have families leave them in Eng- 
land. They generally go out to India to make a fortune 
as quickly as possible, and when they have accumulated 
a competence, they return with their property to Eng- 
land, to spend the remainder of their days in the land of 
their birth, and amidst the cherished associations of 
their youth. Very few of them raise families in India, 
or intend to make their homes permanently in that 
country. Nearly all that Englishmen save and accumu- 
late in India, is sent to England, and the people of India 
are deprived of the benefit of its investment as capital, 
or its expenditure among them. 

The peasantry of Ireland and British India are gener- 
ally excessively poor, and live in the most frugal manner 
possible. Such a condition of things as exists in both 
of those countries, offers an insuperable obstacle to the 
accumulation of property and improvement in condition 
by the peasantry and laboring classes, and keeps them 
in a state of abject poverty. 

29th. Large Indebtedness to other Countries. 

To illustrate the depressing and adverse influences of 
large indebtedness to citizens of other countries, let us 
suppose that all the absentee owners of lands in Ireland 
should sell their lands to resident citizens of that coun- 
try, and take mortgages for the purchase-money — draw- 
ing five per cent, interest. The amount would probably 
exceed ^200,000,000 sterling, or one thousand million 
dollars — drawing an interest of fifty millions of dollars 
annually — to be paid in coin or agricultural products, to 
be sent to the holders of the mortgages in England. It 
is easy to see how such a drain would necessarily de- 
press the business and industry of Ireland, and impover- 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 115 

ish the people, to the same extent as the present system 
of absentee landlordism has done for centuries past. 

All the British colonies of America and Australia, as 
well as British India, are owing to the merchants and 
manufacturers of Great Britain large mercantile debts, 
and generally large colonial and corporate debts, also ; 
the greatest part of their Bank stocks, and their Rail- 
road and Canal stocks, are owned in Great Britain ; 
and the interest on those debts and the income of the 
stocks held in Great Britain, must be sent to the credi- 
tors and stockholders where they reside. 

Mexico has been as much borne down with foreign 
debts as any of the British colonies, and many other 
countries and colonies have suffered from the same 
causes, though to a much less extent. 

Large foreign debts have operated as great obstacles 
to the progress of many colonies and countries, includ- 
ing the United States, and the same depressing in- 
fluences are still in operation. 

30th. An excessive and redundant Paper Currency. 

Paper money is deceptive and delusive in its influence 
upon business, and upon public opinion. Gold and sil- 
ver being extensively used in the arts and for matters of 
ornament, have great intrinsic value in the estimation of 
all civilized nations. They are therefore in universal de- 
mand for purposes of exchange and commerce, and are 
often concealed, hoarded, and kept for future use. 

Paper money having no intrinsic value, can be used 
only for commercial purposes, as a medium of exchange, 
in the country where it is issued. It cannot be sent 
abroad to pay foreign debts, and there is no inclination 
to hoard it. Every person having paper money is anxious 
to use it, to make it productive — either by loaning it on 
interest, or by buying stocks or personal or real property 
of some kind, from which he expects to get an income 
or make a profit. An increase of money or currency in- 
creases the number of anxious buyers, without increasing 
the amount of property to be sold. By increasing the 
demand for many kinds of property, without increasing 



Il6 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

the supply, the tendency is to increase prices, and to 
make many suddenly rich by the increase of prices. 

The constant increase of prices for weeks and months 
in succession, and the prospect of a continued rise, makes 
many persons anxious to buy ; and as this speculative 
movement goes on, all kinds of products and labor also 
are more or less raised in price — and sometimes continue 
to rise with the increase of the volume of currency, until 
a perfect fever of speculation is excited, in many kinds of 
property, and a panic eventually ensues, which checks it. 

All such advances of prices and speculative movements 
render a larger amount of money necessary to carry on 
the business of the country ; and as prices advance, the 
issue of more and more paper money is required to sup- 
ply the demand. The issue itself, by enhancing prices 
and stimulating speculation, instead of satisfying, tends to 
increase the demand for it, and to create a demand for still 
greater issues ; and thus the matter goes on, until a panic 
and a financial crisis occurs, and the people then come to 
their senses. 

As more money is constantly demanded, and seems to 
be needed by business men and speculators, the public 
are deceived by appearances, and are incapable of under- 
standing that there is an excess in circulation already. 
They do not understand the fact that the demand itself 
is artificial, and is mostly created by the enhanced prices 
and the spirit of speculation caused by an excessive and 
redundant paper currency. 

By inflating prices generally, including the prices of 
labor, and increasing the cost of production, a redundant 
currency tends to derange all the relations of industry 
and commerce — to raise products so high as to invite 
large imports from abroad, and to lessen exports by 
raising the prices of domestic products so much above 
those of other nations, that they cannot be exported with 
profit. It tends to neutralize the influence upon domes- 
tic industry of duties on foreign products — to supplant 
domestic by foreign manufactures, and to undermine and 
paralyze the manufacturing and mining industry of a 
country. 

Such are the necessary tendencies, the deceptive influ- 



IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 117 

ences, and the delusive effects of an excessive paper cur- 
rency. The increase in the prices of property, deceives 
great numbers of persons with the idea that they are 
getting rich, when they are, in fact, only marking up the 
supposed value of their property. Others deceive them- 
selves by making money on paper, by uncertain credits. 
The whole tendency of a redundant currency is to de- 
ceive and mislead, to create false conceptions of wealth, 
to encourage a spirit of speculation, extravagance and 
prodigality, and to discourage industry and attention to 
business. In any correct view which can be taken of 
the subject, it operates as an impediment to the progress 
of a nation. 



3 1 st. A zealous Sectarian Spirit, and excessive and violent 
Party Sphit. 

A sectarian spirit, and a violent party spirit, both tend 
to excite and to fill the minds of the people with un- 
founded prejudices, and to blind them to the merits and 
to the force of the arguments of persons not belonging 
to their own sect or party, to such an extent, that they 
can usually see no talent, no virtue, and no patriotism in 
them. 

Such a spirit begets intolerance of opinion, dissension 
and disunion among a people, and often excites a spirit 
of persecution. It sows the seeds of rivalship, jealousy 
and discord, tends to disorganize society, and to breed 
violent controversies, strifes, and civil wars. 

Violent party spirit was one of the greatest evils which 
disturbed the peace of the ancient Republics of Greece, 
the Republic of Rome, and the modern Republics of 
Italy and Holland, as well as that of the United States. 
Party spirit aids in establishing and perpetuating different 
political creeds and policies, and principles of action ; 
tends to array the people into two or more hostile par- 
ties, to draw and maintain permanent lines of distinc- 
tion between them, and to give force and cohesive power 
and permanency to partisan organizations. 

Political as well as moral virtue may generally be found 
in a just medium between extremes. The true spirit 



Il8 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROGRESS. 

and policy of a free country, is to give some effect to the 
opinions of minorities as well as majorities, to avoid ex- 
treme and violent measures, to compromise differences 
of opinion, to harmonize on medium opinions and medium 
measures, and as a general rule, to wait for the silent ef- 
fects of time and experience to test the value of measures 
and policies, and suggest the changes therein — to avoid 
depending much upon untried theories, and to encourage 
no parties except such as naturally arise from real differ- 
ences of opinion as to practical questions, new measures 
and policies that may be suggested, and candidates for 
the highest offices of the government. 

Some degree of party spirit is inseparable from all free 
governments. It necessarily arises from honest differ- 
ences of opinion as to both men and measures ; but ex- 
cessive party spirit often leads people to support for of- 
fice inferior men — selfish, scheming and intriguing poli- 
ticians, and men of notoriously bad character, merely 
because they belong to their party. They console them- 
selves with the idea, that they are acting upon principle ; 
when, in fact, they are governed by a partisan creed, 
cunningly framed to get votes. The tendency of party 
spirit, is, to elect and appoint to office none but violent 
partisans, to demoralize the politics of a country, and to 
corrupt the government, and the people also. It was one 
of the causes which contributed to involve our country 
in the terrible civil war through which we have just pass- 
ed ; and it is now the principal cause which sustains 
ambitious leaders, in urging extreme measures on one 
side, and in opposing all rational reforms and changes on 
the other, and thus prevents the restoration of the Union. 
It is the great evil which now threatens our country with 
another bloody and desolating civil war. It is an evil 
which is not, and never has been, confined to one politi- 
cal party. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

On law and organization ; education, and the re- 
ligious CREEDS AND SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD THEIR 

INFLUENCE UPON THE MENTAL AND MORAL CHARACTER 
OF MAN, AND UPON THE PROGRESS OF PEOPLES AND 
NATIONS ; AND THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS OF 
LAW AND GOVERNMENT. 



Sec. i. Introductory remarks. 

That religious creeds and opinions, and systems of 
theology and of ecclesiastical government, have had great 
influence upon the intellectual development, and upon the 
moral character, industry, and progress of man and of 
nations, must be obvious to every intelligent and reflect- 
ing person. The history of a nation is imperfect and de- 
fective unless it takes into consideration the religious 
character of the people, the ecclesiastical system of the 
country, and its connection, if any, with the government, 
and its influence upon the people, and upon the policy of 
the government. 

Customs and usages, when they become generally prev- 
alent, constitute laws, in all countries. They often sug- 
gest and form the basis of statutes, and of the fundamental 
laws of nations. They also form and mould the manners 
and morals of a people. Religious opinions and usages 
very generally lie at the foundation of the manners and 
customs of a people ; and they are always more or less 
blended with the laws and customs, and with the institu- 
tions and government of every people. Hence, it is im- 
possible to trace with accuracy the intellectual develop- 
ment and progress of a people, without considering the 
influence of their religious creeds and opinions, and their 
system of theology and ecclesiastical government. 



120 LAW AND ORGANIZATION. 

As education lies at the foundation of intellectual de- 
velopment and progress, the schools have a very great 
influence upon the progress of peoples and nations. 
Tribes and peoples that have no schools, are always sta- 
tionary — in a savage, barbarous, or semi-barbarous state, 
and make no progress ; unless it may be in war and con- 
quest, and by plundering other nations. In fact, the 
progress of a people may, in most cases, be measured by 
the number and character of their schools — the number 
of scientific mechanics and engineers, and of well edu- 
cated business and professional men among them, and 
the education and intelligence of the people. 

In the United States, Prussia, some of the German 
States and China, the common-schools and the most of 
the academies and high schools are under the control 
and management of officers of the government — or officers 
of the districts where they are situated ; but in almost 
every other country the schools and education are mostly 
in the hands of the clergy. In Turkey and other Mahom- 
etan countries, the most of the few schools they have are 
connected with Mosques, and are managed by the imams, 
or Mahometan priests. 

All the literary colleges and universities of the Chris- 
tian world (except a few in the United States), are secta- 
rian institutions — under the charge of the clergy of some 
Christian sect ; and such is the case also with many of 
the academies and preparatory schools. Secular as well 
as theological education in almost every civilized country, 
is in the hands of the clergy. This applies not only to 
Christian, but also to Mahometan countries ; to Protest- 
ant as well as to Catholic nations. The character and 
the leading opinions, as well as the customs, of every 
civilized people, are very much influenced and moulded 
by their creeds and systems of religion, and by the clergy ; 
and the efficiency of laws and institutions depends greatly 
upon organization. We must therefore inquire into the 
religion of a people, and examine their system of educa- 
tion, and the organization of their institutions — to learn 
the causes of their progressive or stationary condition. 
Religious creeds and opinions, education and the schools, 
manners and customs, laws and governments, are all more 



SYSTEMS OF RELIGION AND EDUCATION. 121 

or less blended together, all and each act and react upon 
each other, and have great influence upon the character 
and progress of a people. 

Sec. 2. Bonds of Union — Law and Organization. 

Union is the initial point, and the germ, of civilization 
and progress. The bonds of union which hold individuals 
and society together, and constitute families and commu- 
nities, States and nations, may be classed as follows : 

ist. The marriage relation. 

2d. The parental and filial, and other domestic rela- 
tions, arising from blood, affinity, and family association. 

3d. Organized governments, which are based on the 
necessity of order and law — the patriarchal system of 
government arising out of the domestic relations. 

4th. Established usages and customs, which have at- 
tained the force of law — constitutions and codes or sys- 
tems of law and jurisprudence. 

5th. Unity of opinion upon some leading subject or 
subjects, arising from a common origin and language, a 
common literature, and a common national or tribal 
history. 

6th. Unity, or an approximation to unity, of religious 
opinions and sentiments. 

7th. Business and industrial associations, and commer- 
cial and social intercourse. 

8th. A community of interest. 

9th. Common dangers. 

10th. Associations and organizations of all kinds — for 
industry and business, education and the diffusion of 
knowledge, and for the promotion of the cause of religion 
and philanthropy, as well as for the purposes of govern- 
ment. 

nth. Natural and artificial channels and means of 
intercourse and transportation. 

The classes enumerated may be subdivided into many 
others. 

A code of laws, and particularly a good code, consti- 
tutes one of the strongest bonds of union which exists 
among the people of a nation. Without law the people 

6 



122 LAW AND ORGANIZATION. 

are subject to the arbitrary will, the uncertain and fluc- 
tuating opinions, the temporary impulses, and the unre- 
strained passions and prejudices of the monarch and his 
chief officers. Without a code or system of laws, there 
can be no uniformity and no certainty in the imposition 
of taxes, nor in the administration of justice ;.. and no se- 
curity for either person or property. Nothing like civil 
liberty can exist without law to define the rights of the 
citizen ; to regulate and prescribe limits to individual 
action and to official power ; and to direct the adminis- 
tration of justice between individuals, in accordance with 
prescribed rules, to the end that certainty and uniformity 
may be attained. 

Law — that is, law which is in accordance with sound 
reason, with the laws of nature, and with the principles of 
justice — is a great civilizing agent, second to Christianity 
only in efficiency and importance. Even Christianity has 
but little influence without law, and the regular adminis- 
tration of justice in accordance with law. 

Organization. — All creation consists of organizations. 
The solar system is organized. The universe is organ- 
ized. Animal and vegetable life is sustained by organ- 
ization, and cannot exist without it. Not only every 
animal, but every vegetable, tree and plant, is a distinct 
organization. All these organizations are constituted and 
act in accordance with fixed laws. The family, local, 
State or provincial and national governments, should all 
be organized in like manner, in accordance with fixed 
laws — prescribing and limiting their powers, and their 
modes of action. Schools and institutions for the diffu- 
sion of knowledge ; churches and associations for the 
spread of the Gospel ; associations for various business 
and industrial purposes, requiring large amounts of cap- 
ital ; and also associations for great public improvements 
and enterprises — all require to be organized and incor- 
porated, and governed by fixed laws. All such associa- 
tions are managed by their own officers, and act inde- 
pendently of the central executive power. They are 
therefore the organs of self-government ; agencies for the 
education of the people in the processes of self-govern- 
ment ; and also instruments and agencies to aid in 



SYSTEMS OF RELIGION AND EDUCATION. 1 23 

attaining industrial and commercial, educational and 
religious, as well as governmental ends and purposes. 

All such organizations are based on law, and regulated 
by it. They perform many functions which in mon- 
archical countries are performed by the government ; and 
hence the more they are multiplied, the more the people 
manage their own associated interests ; the more they 
enjoy the rights and privileges of self-government ; the 
more liberty they enjoy ; and the greater is the number 
of active elements and agencies of progress in operation. 
The great number of incorporated organizations, in Great 
Britain and the United States, marks the advanced civil- 
ization of the descendants of the Anglo-Saxons. 

An army without organization is a mere mob, and has 
very little efficiency except to plunder. An army needs 
to be organized into companies and regiments, divisions 
and corps, with a commissary and other departments, and 
proper officers for each division and subdivision — each 
having his appropriate rank, station and duties prescribed. 
So with governments. They should be divided into de- 
partments ; the departments subdivided into bureaus and 
smaller divisions, with proper officers to discharge the 
duties of each — the powers and duties of each being pre- 
scribed by law, as far as is practicable — so as to leave as 
little as possible to the opinions and arbitrary will of 
public officers. 

Organization and a full code of laws tend to give reg- 
ularity and efficiency to the operations of government, 
and to secure union and harmony among the people. 
They therefore give a government strength and stability, 
and tend to give it durability also. 

All the ancient governments of the world were defec- 
tive in organization, and all but the Roman in laws also ; 
and hence their weakness and instability ; for they de- 
pended mostly on the talents and the energy of the mon- 
arch, and when he died, the government often crumbled 
under the weakness of his successor, or by reason of 
contests and civil wars between rival aspirants to the 
throne. Under the more perfect organization and laws 
of modern Europe, the death of a sovereign rarely has 
much influence upon the fate of a nation. All the officers 



124 LAW AND ORGANIZATION. 

of government act, and the operations of government go 
on, according to law, without the opinions of the mon- 
arch, in most cases, exercising much influence over them, 
or his death affecting them. 

The empire of Alexander the Great crumbled to pieces 
at his death, because it was defective in organization, 
had no code of laws, and had no other bond of union, and 
no element of progress in it. The empire of the Sara- 
cens began to decay at the end of the first hundred years 
after the death of the Prophet, and finally fell to pieces 
from the same causes ; though its decline and fall were 
slow, because Moslemism constituted, of itself, a strong 
bond of union. About the middle of the eighth century 
the Mahometans of Spain separated from the empire of 
the Saracens, and elected a Caliph for themselves ; and 
in the tenth century the Moslems of Egypt separated in 
like manner, and elected their own Caliph — and there 
were then three Caliphs, until the Turks finally conquered 
their dominions in Asia and Africa. 

The Eastern or Greek empire was held together, and 
continued as a great power, nearly a thousand years after 
the fall of the Western empire, amid the distracting in- 
fluences and the destroying elements of religious dissen- 
sions and persecutions, surrounding enemies, and almost 
constant wars. The chief strength and the principal bond 
of union of that empire consisted in the organization of 
the government, the municipal governments of the cities, 
in the learning, science, and common history of the peo- 
ple, and in the admirable system of Roman law — more 
complete, and (with the exception of the persecuting edicts 
to suppress heresy), more perfect than any system of law 
that ever existed previous to the seventeenth century. 

Sec. 3. Ecclesiastical, educational, and philanthropise 
Organizations and Corporations. 

It is impossible to diffuse religious doctrines and moral 
precepts very generally among a people, and to exercise 
much influence over them for good, without associated ac- 
tion, and organized religious societies as agencies, to make 
the efforts of the clergy, and of pious laymen, effective. 



SYSTEMS OF RELIGION AND EDUCATION. 1 25 

The Israelitish or Jewish Church was the first religious 
body ever organized in the world ; and the Sanhedrim, or 
Council of Elders in Israel, was the first high ecclesiastical 
court, council, or religious convention, ever known. 

Christian churches were organized on the model of 
Jewish churches ; and synods and assemblies, councils 
and conventions of ecclesiastics, are all organizations sug- 
gested by the Sanhedrim of the ancient Israelites. During 
the irruptions of the barbarians into Southern and West- 
ern Europe, and of the Saracens into the christianized 
portions of Asia and Africa, church organizations did as 
much, perhaps, as the written Gospel, to preserve Chris- 
tianity from being entirely extinguished, both in Europe 
and Asia, as it was in all the African provinces except 
Egypt. - 

Religious societies and ecclesiastical organizations of 
Christians, built all their own church edifices, and consti- 
tuted the principal agencies for the establishment and 
maintenance of schools and colleges, for many centuries, 
prior to the general peace of 1815. Colleges, universi- 
ties, and other schools, were in some instances endowed 
and supported by governments ; but the most of them by 
churches and ecclesiastical organizations. The establish- 
ment and support of common schools by law, was scarcely 
known, prior to the nineteenth century, except in Scot- 
land and the Puritan colonies of New England. The 
efforts of Christian missionaries for the spread of the 
Gospel in Pagan countries, have all been made and sus- 
tained through the agencies of ecclesiastical organizations. 

How very different the condition of things in Pagan 
and Mahometan countries! The temples erected for wor- 
ship in ancient Greece and Rome, Egypt and other 
Pagan countries, were built by monarchs or princes, gov- 
ernments or cities, and not by societies of devout Pagans ; 
for no such societies existed. And the most of their 
schools were established and maintained by individual 
enterprise, and for private profit. 

Among the Mahometans we find no ecclesiastical or- 
ganizations separate from the government, no organized 
religious societies, and no religious associations of any 
kind. There are no philanthropic associations nor literary 



126 LAW AND ORGANIZATION. 

societies among them. Their mosques are built by the 
central or local governments, by the Sultan, or by the 
Pashas and other subordinate officers ; and the few schools 
connected with them were established by the government, 
to educate persons for official stations. There are also 
some private schools to educate the children of the wealthy 
and middle classes ; but no academies and colleges incor- 
porated and managed by incorporations, as there are in 
nearly all Christian countries. 

A similar state of things has ever existed among the 
Hindoos. There were never any religious societies or 
ecclesiastical organizations among them, distinct from the 
government ; and all their temples for religious worship 
were built by monarchs and princes, or by wealthy and 
devout Hindoos. So in China, and every other Pagan 
country. They have no ecclesiastical organizations ; no 
religious societies ; and no associations or societies incor- 
porated for educational, literary, scientific, or philanthropic 
purposes. All their temples and pagodas for worship are 
built by the central, provincial, or city governments, or 
by wealthy citizens. Christian nations are the only peo- 
ples, except the Jews, who have ever had incorporated 
societies for religious purposes ; and the only people who 
have ever prosecuted great and distant philanthropic and 
religious enterprises. 

Sec. 4. Powers of Government limited by the Laws of 

Nature. 

As the powers of government arise from the laws of 
nature, from the necessity of government, of laws, of 
the administration of justice and of the affairs of the 
people, those powers are limited in extent by the laws of 
nature, and the necessities out of which they arise. As 
they arise from human wants and necessities, they are 
limited in their nature to matters which pertain to this 
earth. They do not extend to the spiritual world, nor to 
matters of a spiritual or religious nature. 

Civil governments must, from the necessity of the case, 
be vested with the powers of coercion, to restrain and 
punish crime ; to compel the payment of taxes necessary 



SYSTEMS OF RELIGION AND EDUCATION. 127 

for the support of the government ; and to compel sub- 
mission to such laws as are really necessary to maintain 
order, to check and prevent .gross vice and corruption, to 
administer justice between individuals, to give security 
to person and property, and to promote the industry and 
general welfare of the whole people. The laws of nature 
limit the powers of government to such subjects ; and all 
attempts of monarchs or majorities to extend its powers 
beyond such limits, tend to violate the rights of the peo- 
ple or of the minority. Governments have no rightful 
jurisdiction over religion, spiritual matters, nor matters of 
opinion of any kind ; nor over matters of morals, except 
to restrain and punish the grosser kinds of vice and im- 
morality. 

Law cannot reach and restrain the more delicate shades 
of vice and immorality — consisting of falsehood and de- 
ception, which do not result in defrauding persons of their 
property or their rights ; in amusements and practices 
which, when carried to excess, tend to dissipation and the 
ruin of individuals ; or in luxury and prodigality. Gov- 
ernments cannot reach such things without running into 
tyranny, and producing more evil than good. Sumptuary 
laws, laws which regulate the industry, the dress, the 
manners, or restrain the industrial freedom of the people ; 
and laws to establish a religious creed for a people — to 
regulate their modes of religious worship — to restrain the 
free expression of opinions which are not grossly obscene 
nor palpably corrupting — to punish persons for express- 
ing or holding opinions which the majority of the people, 
or the Church may deem heretical — to restrain educa- 
tion, or to limit the right to teach to persons who profess 
a certain religious creed — are all assumptions of power, 
beyond the proper sphere of government. All such laws 
unnecessarily infringe the liberty and natural rights of 
man. They are obstacles to progress, and can be pro- 
ductive of nothing but evil and injustice. Nearly all the 
tyranny and oppression of the world, are carried into effect 
in accordance with human laws or the forms of law. In 
republican countries, laws, and the execution thereof, con- 
stitute the principal means of tyranny and oppression. 



128 LAW AND ORGANIZATION. 






Sec. 5. Moral Suasion and Ecclesiastical Government. 

Religious associations and organizations should be en- 
tirely separate and distinct from the civil government of 
the country, and be independent of it — except so far as 
they may need acts of incorporation and the aid of the 
law, in the management of their property and secular 
concerns. They should have no power nor jurisdiction 
over matters which pertain to civil government ; no 
power to punish vice or crime, nor to exercise any civil 
or criminal jurisdiction over individuals. 

The powers of ecclesiastical governments are properly 
limited in their nature to moral and religious ends and 
purposes, and to the use of moral-suasion and moral 
means. Ecclesiastical governments should rest entirely 
upon moral and religious influences and opinions, and 
upon moral-suasion ; and not on force, physical power, 
nor the power of coercion. They should have no author- 
ity over a man's person or his property — no power to 
impose corporal punishment or restraint of any kind — 
and no power to reach a man's property by taxation or a 
system of tithes. Churches should be governed by moral 
suasion and moral means, and supported by voluntary 
contributions and the donations of individuals. 

To avoid conflicts, not only the jurisdiction, but also 
the action and the consideration of subjects, by religious 
and ecclesiastical meetings and councils, should be as 
distinct and different in their character from those over 
which the civil government takes jurisdiction, as it is 
possible to have them — considering that the physical and 
intellectual, the moral and religious natures of man, are 
all blended together. The consideration, discussion, and 
determination of political questions and all matters of 
government, should be regarded as foreign to matters of 
religion, and should be left to legislative bodies, officers 
of government, political meetings, and the people acting 
in their civil and secular capacity. The pulpit and ec- 
clesiastical bodies should have nothing to do with such 
subjects — except in great exigencies, and in very critical 
periods of a nation's history. 



BRAHMINISM ITS CHARACTER AND TENDENCIES. I2Q 

Such are the views of civil and ecclesiastical govern- 
ments, and of the proper spheres and powers thereof, which 
have been predominant in our country ever since the 
American Revolution, and our existence as a nation. 
Such is the theory upon which our system of govern- 
ment is based — the only theory which can secure the 
civil and religious liberty of the citizen. The practice of 
our Federal and State governments has conformed to 
that theory (with but few exceptions) for nearly a cen- 
tury ; and the colonies partially conformed to it ever 
since the great English Revolution of 1689, an d the pass- 
age by Parliament of the bill of rights, and the bill allow- 
ing toleration in matters of religion. 

Such is the American theory of civil and ecclesiastical 
governments, and of the proper spheres thereof, which 
was gradually developed and matured during ages and 
centuries, and thousands of years. All the governments 
of Europe are still a vast distance behind the American 
theory ; but those of Switzerland, Holland, and Great 
Britain have made great advances towards it during the 
last two hundred and fifty years ; and many other nations 
have made considerable progress in the same direction. 

Sec. 6. Brahminisrn — Its Character and Tendencies. 

The system of theology and religious worship estab- 
lished in Hindostan, and known as Brahminisrn, is sup- 
posed to have originated more than three thousand years 
since. The religious rites and ceremonies of Brahmin- 
ism, the laws of caste, and the civil and criminal laws of 
the ancient Hindoos, were incorporated together in the 
code known as the Institutes of Menu, their great law- 
giver, who was supposed to have been a son of Brama, 
by whom the system was revealed. That famous code 
embraces a complete system of morals and religion, law 
and government. Brahminisrn itself is an artful system 
of despotism and priestcraft, nicely blended with the 
aristocracy and tyranny of caste, and with the juris- 
prudence and ancient government of the Hindoos. 

The moral precepts of Brahminisrn are generally good ; 
but its theology and intellectual philosophy are very ab- 



130 BRAHMINISM ITS CHARACTER AND TENDENCIES. 

surd, and its social and political philosophy very despotic 
and oppressive. The whole of its doctrines of the trinity 
of gods, and of the transmigration of the human soul 
through animals, are ridiculous and disgusting to rational 
minds ; and hence they never spread much beyond the 
borders of Hindostan, and were superseded by Buddhism 
in the neighboring countries, and also in the island of 
Ceylon. 

The moral precepts, proverbs and maxims of Brahmin- 
ism, are generally distinguished for their rigor and purity ; 
many of them are noble and elevated, and approximate 
to the great moral truths and principles of Christianity. 
But they are inflexible, rigid, and exclusive in their char- 
acter ; the principles of justice are perverted by the laws 
of caste ; the penalties and punishments prescribed to 
enforce their precepts and the laws of caste, are severe 
and cruel ; and the whole tendency of the system is to 
austerity and intolerance, and to the persecution of all 
that do not conform strictly to their laws and doctrines. 
The Brahmin priesthood stimulated the people and the 
government to resist the doctrines and the reforms of 
the Buddhists, and to persecute them, until the latter 
were expelled from India by persecution, between the 
fifth and the seventh century of our era.* 

The principles of Brahminism and the code of Menu 
are inconsistent with freedom of inquiry, freedom of 
action, and freedom of speech. They present insuperable 
obstacles to reform or progress of any kind ; and hence 
there was very little change in the laws and institutions, 
or in the customs and condition of the Hindoos, for more 
than two thousand years, and until after the country was 
conquered by the Mahometans. Though the country 
was under Mahometan rule for several centuries, and the 
most of it has been under British rule for about a cen- 
tury, and the laws of caste were long since abolished, yet 
the prejudices of caste, and the attachment of the Hin- 
doos to their ancient religion, still remain to a very great 
extent, having resisted the influence of conquests and 
conquerors, and of new systems of law and government, 

* See Brande's Encyclopedia of Science and Literature, and the 
New American Cyclopedia, vol. iv. p. 63. 



BUDDHISM ITS CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE. 131 

as well as the efforts of Christian missionaries. Brah- 
minism still retains a powerful influence over about one 
hundred and fifty millions of inhabitants. 

If the Hindoos were governed and treated by their 
conquerors with humanity, British laws, learning and 
science, and the industrial arts, methods, and instruments 
of Europe, cooperating with schools, missionaries, and 
the Christian religion, would make a deep impression 
upon them, and gradually diffuse among them the ele- 
ments of progress, and of European civilization. 

Sec. 7. Buddhism — its Character and Influence. 

According to tradition, Buddhism originated with an 
Indian prince, to whom the title of Buddha, or " The 
Sage" was given by his followers. It is uncertain when 
he lived. Some authors assign the period of his birth as 
early as ten or eleven hundred years before Christ, and 
others less than six hundred years before the Christian 
era. 

Buddhism originated in efforts to reform the doctrines 
and institutions of Brahminism, to modify its austerities, 
remove its cruelties, and the tyranny of the system of 
castes, and improve the condition of the people. It 
teaches that the human soul is an emanation from the 
Deity, and is immortal ; and that a virtuous and religious 
life is necessary to secure happiness after the termination 
of this life. It is liberal, tolerant, and pacific in its char- 
acter ; moral, benevolent, and humane in its principles 
and precepts ; and propagates its doctrines only by moral 
suasion, and never by war, nor by law and force. It 
teaches the principles of justice, to abstain from warfare, 
to practice virtue, and to avoid vice. It discountenances 
polygamy, and treats woman with more consideration 
than any other Oriental religion. In its moral precepts 
and character it approximates more nearly to Christianity 
than any other system of pagan worship, except, perhaps, 
Magianism. It is more favorable to freedom and justice, 
industry and enterprise, benevolence and progress, than 
Brahminism is ; and more favorable to chastity and puri- 
ty than the religion of the Egyptians or Assyrians, the 



132 CHARACTER OF POLYTHEISM. 

Greeks or Romans, or any of the great nations of anti- 
quity. 

Buddhism was introduced into China during the first 
century of the Christian era, and was expelled from Hin- 
dostan by the persecutions of the Brahmins between the 
fifth and the seventh centuries of our era.* It now pre- 
vails in China, Japan, India beyond the Ganges, the 
island of Ceylon, and various other Asiatic islands. It 
has more or less influence over nearly three hundred 
millions of inhabitants. It is flexible in its character, 
adapts itself readily to the condition of a people, and has 
been more or less corrupted in different countries by 
being blended with other forms of idolatry. Many of its 
priests are miserable mendicants — without learning, ele- 
vation of thought, or purity of morals — whose lives are 
not in accordance with the precepts of the religion they 
profess ; but I believe it has never been stained or dis- 
graced by intolerance or persecution of any kind. 

It is believed that the influence of Buddhism upon the 
minds of its votaries is more favorable to the reception 
of Christianity than Brahminism or Mahometanism, and 
hence the efforts of Christian missionaries have been 
more successful among the Buddhists, in the island of 
Ceylon, than they have in Hindostan, Turkey, or any 
Mahometan country. 



Sec. 8. Character of Polytheism. 

The polytheism of the ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, 
and Assyrians, Greeks and Romans, and many other 
nations of antiquity, seems to have originated in hero- 
worship — in deifying the extraordinary powers and facul- 
ties, and also the passions of men. It was based on 
mythology, and not on any system of theology. In fact, 
it was destitute of any system of morals, any moral pre- 
cepts, or any fixed belief in the immortality of the soul, 
and a state of future rewards and punishments. It con- 
sisted in idle ceremonies and sacrifices, dark superstitions 
and absurd myths, without any intelligent faith in any- 

* See the New American Cyclopedia, vol. iv. 



MAGIANISM AND JUDAISM. 1 33 

thing. It had no animating or stimulating principle in 
its character; but it had the elements of liberty, charity, 
and non-intervention — of free'dom of inquiry and freedom 
of action ; and it was not tainted with self-righteousness, 
intolerance, or a spirit of exclusiveness ; and therefore it 
was consistent with improvement and progress. 

It is true that polytheism contained no instruction, 
either moral, theological, or philosophical ; and that all 
its virtues were of a negative character. Its influence 
was comparatively trifling, and its chief merit was, that 
it left the human mind free, without imposing shackles 
or restraints upon it ; and though it did not teach a sys- 
tem of morals nor the immortality of the soul, yet it was 
favorable to free inquiry, and to the production of such 
philosophers as Socrates and Plato, Aristotle and Cicero, 
by whom such ideas and systems of philosophy were con- 
ceived and taught. Under such a system, Galileo might 
have pursued his astronomical inquiries in peace, and 
might have published to the world his theory of the solar 
system, without fear of punishment, and without being 
molested by either ecclesiastical or civil courts. 

Polytheism was broken in upon, firstly, by Judaism ; 
secondly, by Magianism ; thirdly, by Christianity ; and, 
fourthly, by Mahometanism. It was finally overturned 
and extinguished in many countries by Christianity, and 
in some by Mahometanism. Though the system of poly- 
theism was overturned more than a thousand years since 
in every civilized country where it once flourished, yet 
the people who professed it — their laws and institutions, 
arts and learning — have had a wonderful influence upon 
the civilization and progress of nations, and upon the 
present condition of mankind. 

Sec. 9. Magianism and Judaism. 

The religion of the ancient Persians, generally attri- 
buted to Zoroaster, and known as Magianism, and its 
priests as Magi, was of a very different character. Magi- 
anism contains a system of theology more rational than 
any other system of paganism. It recognizes one God, 
omnipotent and invisible — the creator, rule^ and pre- 



134 MAGIANISM AND JUDAISM. 

server of the universe, and the source of all good. In- 
dustry and honesty, truth and chastity, charity and hos- 
pitality, prayer and obedience, are enjoined ; envy and 
hatred, contention and revenge, and also polygamy are 
forbidden. It contains many noble moral precepts, a 
system of morals of a high order, and a vast amount of 
learning, embodied in what is known as the Zend-Avesta, 
or sacred books. 

There is no reason to doubt that its influence was 
generally good, and of an elevating and purifying char- 
acter — much more so than that of Brahminism ; for it 
was not tainted and perverted by such a system of caste 
and despotism, as was interwoven with Brahminism. It 
was not unfavorable to Christianity, which spread in 
many parts of Persia in the sixth century, and great 
numbers of Persians became Nestorian Christians. Ma- 
gianism exercised a healthy influence over many millions 
of inhabitants, during a period of twelve or fifteen cen- 
turies, and until Persia was conquered by the Mahome- 
tans in the seventh century. Under the persecutions of 
the Mahometans, the most of the Persians submitted to 
Islamism ; but some of the Magians fled to Hindostan, 
and are still known in that country by the name of 
Parsees. 



Judaism. 

The Israelites were few in numbers compared with 
many other nations — occupied an interior and non-com- 
mercial situation, and ten of the tribes having been con- 
quered and carried into captivity at an early period — 
Judaism never had any perceptible influence upon the 
progress of nations, which the historian or the philoso- 
pher could estimate. Its only permanent influence has 
been the influence of the Old Testament Scriptures 
upon the Christian world since the Christian era. The 
exclusive and primitive spirit of Judaism infused into 
Christianity has produced, indirectly, an influence upon 
nearly every Christian sect ; but much greater upon some 
than upon others. 



CHRISTIANITY. I35 

Sec. 10. Christianity — and its influence upon Civilization 
and Progress. 

The Christian religion and its systems of worship are 
all of an intellectual, as well as of a spiritual character. 
Preaching the Gospel, prayer and reading the Scriptures, 
are all intellectual exercises ; and there is philosophy as 
well as theology in the psalms and hymns. Religious ex- 
ercises, as conducted by Christian churches, are a means 
not only of improving the heart and the morals — but also 
of exercising and developing, expanding and improving the 
intellect, and of educating a people. The Bible itself as a 
book, and the Christian system of preaching and expound- 
ing that book, exercise great educational powers. They 
occupy the attention very much of a very large portion of 
the people of Christian countries ; and aid largely in ex- 
ercising and expanding their minds, as well as in improv- 
ing their morals and habits. 

The Christian religion has sanctified marriage, over- 
turned and destroyed the customs of polygamy and con- 
cubinage in the Christian world, and promoted chastity and 
purity. It has encouraged industry, inculcated order and 
obedience to law, truth and honesty, justice and humanity, 
love and charity, meekness and humility, peace and good- 
will to all men ; and without reference to its influence upon 
the future welfare of Christians, it has been an active ele- 
ment of civilization and progress. 

The Gospel tends to purify and elevate the mind and 
the morals, and to repress and restrain excessive selfish- 
ness and violent passion, avarice and ambition, arrogance 
and self-righteousness, tyranny and oppression. It gives 
no countenance to intolerance and persecution, to an in- 
termeddling spirit, nor to ecclesiastical domination of any 
kind. Though it does not denounce slavery, yet its 
spirit and its precepts are inconsistent with slavery, or 
with tyranny and oppression of any kind. It tends to 
soften the asperities of the temper and the manners ; to 
elevate the character ; to produce contentment and peace 
of mind — order and tranquillity in a community ; to raise 
the standard of civilization ; and to promote the progress 
of a nation. 



I36 TEACHINGS AND PERVERSIONS OF CHRISTIANITY. 

The divine songs, psalms and hymns of the Bible, con- 
tain ideas and truths which awaken the faculties and the 
dormant energies of the mind, stimulate thought, tend to 
calm and restrain violent impulses, and to harmonize 
mental actions. In all these particulars, they have an 
elevating and humanizing, as well as a religious influence, 
of great power. The Vedas of Brahminism contain simi- 
lar psalms and hymns, which must have had a good in- 
fluence upon the minds and the character of the Hindoos. 
The Koran contains no such thing ; the mosiem worship 
contains no such animating principle — no such principle 
of sympathy and harmony. Individual prayer constitutes 
the substance of mosiem worship. The same remarks 
apply to all kinds of pagan worship. 

Sec 11. The teachings and the perversions of Christianity. 

The New Testament dispensation teaches obedience to 
law, and submission to the existing government — without 
making any exceptions, in the form of exceptions. It 
also teaches the principles and inculcates the practice of 
justice and humanity, charity and philanthropy, peace and 
good will to men. 

In applying rules to practice and to the exigencies of 
human affairs, every rule of action operates as a limit 
and an exception to some other rule. Governments have 
legitimate authority to make just and humane laws, and 
no others ; and the citizen is enjoined to obey them. 
When a government exceeds its legitimate powers and 
makes unjust, cruel and oppressive laws, the citizen is 
generally required by the principles of Christianity, to sub- 
mit to them as a matter of expediency ; because any 
attempt at resistance will, in most cases, only increase 
the evil ; and because anarchy is generally productive of 
more evil consequences to a people than tyranny. But 
when a people have endured injustice and great oppression 
until they are nearly unanimous in their opposition to the 
tyranny, and can make a successful resistance and revolu- 
tionize the government, they are justified in doing so ; at 
least such is the American interpretation of the Scrip- 
tures. The contrary interpretation tends to establish not 



TEACHINGS AND PERVERSIONS OF CHRISTIANITY. 1 37 

only the divine right of kings and monarchs, princes and 
potentates, popes and bishops, but also their unlimited 
sovereign power to make and enforce laws upon all sub- 
jects, temporal and spiritual, civil and religious, — and to 
compel obedience to them by severe penalties and punish- 
ments, — however unjust and tyrannical, oppressive and 
cruel they may be ; and it has been insisted that the Gos- 
pel imposes upon the citizen the duty of passive obe- 
dience, under any and all circumstances, to the laws and 
ordinances of his government. Such an interpretation 
may properly be regarded as a perversion of the Gospel, 
and of the principles of Christianity. The early Christians 
were taught submission under certain circumstances, as a 
matter of policy — and not as a duty. 

The Gospel seeks to inculcate its principles and doc- 
trines, by preaching and moral suasion, by reading and 
studying the Scriptures, and not by force nor by law, 
which is backed up by force and military power, to aid in 
executing it. The Gospel gives no countenance to unjust 
and oppressive laws ; no countenance to laws which at- 
tempt to regulate the religious opinions of men ; nor to 
human laws which prescribe the mode in which the peo- 
ple may worship God ; nor to human laws which attempt 
to impose a religious creed upon the people, and to punish 
dissenters, or to impose disabilities upon them. All such 
laws are perversions of the principles of Christianity. At 
least such is the view which the American people gene- 
rally take of them ; and such is the doctrine which was 
established in England, by the revolution of 1689. Such 
laws are based on absolutism, self-righteousness, and an 
assumption of infallibility ; and contain the very essence 
of despotism. 

In the reign of the Emperor Constantine, early in the 
4th century, the Christian religion became the established 
religion of the Roman Empire, and the church was united 
with the government. During the 4th and 5th centuries, 
the Manicheeans and Donatists, the Arians and the Nes- 
torians, the Eutychians and Monophysites, and the Pela- 
gians also, were all denounced as heretical sects ; many 
imperial edicts were made to regulate religious worship, 
and establish creeds and doctrines ; severe punishments 



I38 TEACHINGS AND PERVERSIONS OF CHRISTIANITY. 

and penalties were enacted to put down paganism, and 
crush out heresy, schisms and divisions in the church — 
and to establish uniformity of opinion in religious matters. 

All such laws and edicts are inconsistent with either civil 
or religious liberty, and may properly be regarded as per- 
versions of Christianity. They mostly failed to attain the 
objects and purposes for which they were made. Instead 
of securing uniformity of opinion and unity of worship, 
they induced intolerance and persecution, excited oppo- 
sition and retaliation, violent dissensions and bitter ani- 
mosities, mobs and massacres, insurrections and civil 
wars, and filled the empire with discord and carnage. 
They made parties and factions hostile to each other ; 
destroyed the national spirit of the people ; paralyzed 
industry ; compelled great numbers of citizens to flee the 
country, and to seek protection among barbarous tribes 
and other peoples ; stirred up a spirit of hostility to the 
government, both within and without the empire, and pre- 
pared the way for the fall of the Western Empire, and for 
the success of Mahometanism. Such causes and disorders 
greatly weaken nations, and* make them an easy prey to 
conquering armies from abroad — aided by domestic fac- 
tions and traitors. 

The appropriation of the pagan temples, consecrated 
property, and revenues of the pagan priests and vestals, 
to the uses of the government or Christian churches, 
might be expedient and politic — to hasten the downfall of 
paganism and promote the success of Christianity. So far 
it might be politic for the government to go, to secure 
the desired end ; though the natural tendency of all such 
measures was to divide and distract society, and to weaken 
the empire. Such measures, the preaching of the Gospel, 
moral suasion, and the moral influence of Christians and 
Christian churches, would have insured the gradual intro- 
duction and the final triumph of Christianity, without 
convulsing and destroying the Roman world. 

All direct interference by the government with the 
opinions and worship of the pagans, was productive of 
more evil than good — as is shown by the history of the 
Christian world, during the last fifteen centuries ; and 
out of regard for their attachments to their religion 



MAHOMETANISM ITS CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE. 1 39 

and idols, even the laws for the purposes named, and 
to punish those that resisted them, should have been 
executed with great moderation. The pagans should 
have been treated with mildness, and efforts made to con- 
vert them by moral suasion, and not by a rigid execution 
of severe laws, and cruel punishments. So far and no far- 
ther (it appears to me), it was politic for the government 
to go ; but no such laws or measures, and no laws to res- 
train or regulate religious worship should have been ap- 
plied to the Jews, nor to any class of persons that professed 
to be followers of Christ, or believers in Christianity. 

Sec. 12. Mahometanism — Its Character and Influence. 

Mahometanism has some sound principles and cardinal 
virtues, which have commended it to the common sense 
of great numbers of the human family. It recognizes one 
invisible God or Supreme Being — the Creator and Ruler 
of the universe ; the immortality of the human soul, and a 
future state of rewards and punishments ; and it denoun- 
ces idolatry. But its views of the character of the Deity, 
and of the future rewards of men, are as low and grovelling 
as those of the most degraded pagans of antiquity. There 
is nothing really spiritual in it. Heaven is described in the 
Koran as the abode of sensualists, where the most intense 
sensualism is enjoyed ; and the future life of the faithful 
mussulman consists in a succession of sensual enjoyments. 

The doctrines and precepts of Mahometanism are of a 
selfish character. They do not inculcate either love or 
benevolence, justice or humanity. Mahometanism is in 
truth lamentably deficient in moral precepts. It allows 
unrestrained sway to the passions, and gives a religious 
sanction to the lusts of the flesh — to polygamy and con- 
cubinage — to aggressive and predatory warfare, robbery 
and plunder — to slavery, and to the savage and cruel ex- 
termination of peoples and races that will not embrace 
its dogmas, nor pay tribute ; and yet there are some good 
moral rules and precepts blended with the evil, in the 
system. Gambling and the use of intoxicating liquors 
are prohibited ; and charity to the faithful is inculcated. 
These precepts have been productive of an incalculable 



140 MAHOMETANISM ITS CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE. 

amount of good. They have made the Mahometans, 
very generally, a sedate and grave people — remarkable 
for their regularity of habits, and stability of character. 

The Koran presents views of heaven and of a future 
life, which are inconsistent with human reason, and there- 
fore belief in it depends upon blind faith — without any 
rational exercise of the intellect. Its system of worship 
consists in a few ceremonies, frequent prayers and attend- 
ance at the mosques, and pilgrimages to Mecca, without 
much preaching or other instruction. Even their prayers 
in the mosques are not in unison — where one person 
prays for all present, and directs the currents of their 
thoughts and feelings for the time being — as the Christian 
custom is ; but each moslem prays for himself; and hun- 
dreds often pray aloud at the same moment — producing 
confusion of sounds and ideas, instead of harmony. No 
valuable instruction, no improvement, and no progress 
can come from such a system of worship. 

Mahometanism contains very few moral or social prin- 
ciples — very few germs of thought — no animating princi- 
ple — no element of progress ; nothing which tends to excite 
inquiry and to give activity to the human mind. There is 
nothing in it which tends to develop, exercise, or stimu- 
late the mind, except to deeds of war and plunder ; there 
is, in fact, nothing in it which aids in educating a people. 

It contains no principle or germ of organization for 
civil or religious, social or political, industrial or com- 
mercial purposes ; nor for any purpose except war and 
plunder. It unites the elements of a theocratic and a 
military despotism ; and contains the corruptions of 
Mormonism, without the active energies which arise from 
Mormon organization, and the preaching of the Mormon 
priesthood. It is adapted only to such a wandering 
nomadic people, as the most of the inhabitants of Arabia 
are, and ever have been. 

McCulloch says, " that Turkish schools are mostly at- 
tended by boys only. In Turkey, education is not con- 
sidered necessary to a girl ; so that by far the greater 
number of women, knowing little or nothing themselves, 
can communicate nothing to their children." 

There are but very few amusements of any kind among 



FALL OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE. 141 

Mahometans ; and none in which females participate 
with males, except in the family circle. The women are 
excluded by the Turks from all society, except the do- 
mestic circle ; in which near relatives are occasionally ad- 
mitted, and a few female friends. Females are regarded 
as of little account ; generally treated as slaves and concu- 
bines, and not as companions ; and are not often regarded 
as having any legal rights. The Koran does not require 
them to attend prayers in public, in the mosques, and cus- 
tom forbids it. How could it be possible for a people to 
improve under such a religious and social system ? 

Mahometanism is exclusive, intolerant, and proscriptive 
in its character ; and inconsistent with freedom of in- 
quiry, freedom of thought, or freedom of action. There 
is nothing in it which tends to exercise the reasoning 
powers, to expand the intellect, or to improve the mind 
or the morals. Its tendency is to make women slaves ; 
to inflame the passions, to stimulate a passion for war, 
adventure and plunder ; to paralyze industry and enter- 
prise ; to unfit a people for the sober pursuits of industry 
and business, and to unfit them for progress of any kind, 
except military conquest. The only inventions attributed 
to Mahometan nations are Arabic figures and the art of dis- 
tillation; all other elements and arts of civilization which 
they have, were borrowed from other nations. 

Mahometanism has been propagated mostly by the 
sword and the bayonet, and not much by preaching ; it 
has been propagated by force and violence, and not by 
moral suasion — by armies and military power, more than 
by schools or the press. Its corrupt principles, intolerant 
and proscriptive character, and the mode of its propaga- 
tion, have all contributed to make it the greatest scourge 
and curse which ever afflicted the human family. 

Sec. 13. Fall of the Western Roman Empire, and condi- 
tion of the Eastern Empire and of Persia at the death 
of Mahomet. 

The edicts of the Roman Emperors were terribly ty- 
rannical and oppressive towards the clergy, and sects 
that the church condemned as heretical, as well as to- 



142 FALL OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE. 

wards the pagans. Many of the persecuted sects and 
pagans fled the country, and took refuge from persecution 
among the barbarians, whom they stimulated, in many 
instances, to invade the empire. Those that remained 
were disaffected, became secret enemies of the gov- 
ernment, and ready to hail the invaders of their country 
as friends, who would deliver them from persecution. Such 
facts are stated by Gibbon in his History of the Decline 
and Fall of the Roman Empire ; and also by Mosheim 
in his Ecclesiastical History. Such are the tenden- 
cies and promptings of human nature. Such a state of 
things and such results, are the necessary consequences 
of carrying into effect a system of religious intolerance 
and persecution. 

The Goths, under Alaric, their king or chief, invaded 
Italy, marched through the country, fought several bat- 
tles, and besieged Rome. A gate of the city was opened 
by treachery in the night-time, and the Goths entered, 
took and plundered the city, in the year 410 of our era. 
They evacuated Rome in a few days, but remained over 
two years in Italy, ravaged and plundered many districts, 
and made themselves rich with spoils, before they made 
peace with the empire and left the country. 

Spain was invaded about the same time and ravaged 
by the Vandals and other barbarians, from the north and 
north-easterly parts of Europe. The Vandals passed the 
Mediterranean and invaded and conquered all the African 
provinces of the empire, from the Atlantic ocean to Tri- 
poli — aided by the persecuted Donatists, Arians, and 
Manicheeans, and by the rivalship of ambitious generals 
of the empire. 

The Huns, under Attila, invaded the Eastern Empire, 
and ravaged a portion of Europe, north of Constantinople. 
They also invaded and ravaged large districts of Gaul, and 
Italy also. 

The Vandals having established their dominion in the 
African provinces, conquered Sicily, invaded Italy, and 
took and plundered the city of Rome about the year 454. 
The Western Empire was finally overturned, and the 
Gothic Kingdom of Italy under Odoacer as king, was 
established in the year 476. 



FALL OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE. 1 43 

During the 5th and 6th centuries, Spain was overrun 
and conquered, and much of it devastated at different 
times, by barbarous hordes of Vandals, Goths, and Visi- 
goths ; Gaul (now France), by the Huns, Visigoths, Van- 
dals, Burgundians, Franks and other barbarians ; and Eng- 
land by the Scots, Picts, and Saxons. All those countries, 
and all the countries subject to the Eastern Empire, were 
distracted by religious dissensions and controversies, as 
well as by civil discords ; and devastated and depopulated 
by wars and massacres, robbery and plunder, religious 
persecutions and popular tumults. 

The Roman power, or rather the power of the Eastern 
Empire, was partially restored during the long and suc- 
cessful reign of the emperor Justinian. Belizarius, whom, 
the emperor sent with a fleet and army to Africa, con- 
quered the Vandals in the year 534, and all the African 
provinces became subject to the empire. Justinian also 
sent armies to Italy, and after a war of nearly twenty 
years with the Goths, the Gothic Kingdom was overturned, 
and the people became subject to the emperor of the 
east, about the middle of the 6th century ; but the coun- 
try was terribly devastated and depopulated. 

These successes were of short duration. Justinian, be- 
ing a bigot, reestablished in the conquered provinces, and 
enforced in all his dominions, the old tyrannical laws for 
the suppression of heresy ; and the Arians and Donatists 
in Africa, the Arians in Italy, and the Nestorians and 
other heretical sects in Greece and Asia, were cruelly 
persecuted ; which contributed to involve the empire in 
wars, and to the loss of many provinces by his successors. 
A people divided among themselves, become an easy 
prey to an invading army. 

The Lombards, invaded and conquered the northern 
part of Italy, and established the kingdom of Lombardy, 
in the year 568 ; and the Avars and other barbarians in- 
vaded and ravaged some of the European provinces of 
the empire, and portions of Italy, several times during 
the last forty years of the sixth century, and the first 
quarter of the seventh. 

The distracted condition of the empire, and the discon- 
tent of the persecuted sects, constantly invited the in- 



144 FALL OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE. 

vasion of foreign enemies. Chosroes, king of Persia, in- 
vaded and marched successfully through the eastern Ro- 
man provinces, occupied the Syrian cities, took Jerusalem 
by assault, conquered Palestine, Syria and Egypt, and all 
the Asiatic provinces of the empire, between the years 603 
and 616. A Persian camp was maintained for ten years in 
sight of Constantinople, on the Asiatic side of the Bos- 
phorus. 

The great success of the Persian armies, was princi- 
pally owing to religious persecutions and the aid the Per- 
sians derived from the persecuted sects. Gibbon says, 
" By the oppressive laws of Justinian, the adversaries of 
the church were made the enemies of the state ; the alliance 
of the Jews, Nestorians and Jacobites, had contributed to 
the success of Chosroes ; and his partial favor to the secta- 
ries provoked the hatred and the fears of the Catholic clergy!' 
Oppressive laws, religious controversies and persecutions, 
absorbed the principal attention of the people, and con- 
tributed to destroy their military spirit, national spirit, and 
patriotism. 

It is true that the emperor HeVaclius renewed the war 
with the Persians in the year 622, and in the course of 
six years reconquered Syria, Egypt, and all the provinces 
which Chosroes had taken, and drove the Persians out of 
the empire ; but those long and bloody wars, and re- 
ligious persecutions, had greatly exhausted and depopu- 
lated the provinces, and prepared them for the successful 
invasion and conquest of the Saracens. 

The long and finally disastrous wars of the Persians 
with the Romans, had greatly exhausted their country ; 
Chosroes was deposed by a conspiracy, and thrown into 
a dungeon, where he soon died ; eighteen of his sons 
were massacred by the conspirators, and the one who 
was made king, enjoyed his guilty honors less than a 
year — when the whole nation was thrown into anarchy 
and confusion. Gibbon says, that, " in the space of four 
years, the regal title was assumed by nine candidates, 
who disputed with sword or dagger, the fragments of an 
exhausted monarchy. Every province, and each city of 
Persia, was the scene of independence, of discord, and of 
blood, and the state of anarchy prevailed about eight years 



MAHOMET AND HIS FOLLOWERS. I45 

longer, till the factions were silenced and united under the 
common yoke of the Arabian Caliphs" 

Such was the condition of Persia and of the Christian 
world, at the time of the death of Mahomet, when he had 
become the supreme ruler of Arabia. The western 
Roman empire had been crushed by barbarians, and the" 
Eastern Empire seemed ready to crumble to pieces, by 
reason of religious dissensions and intolerance, proscrip- 
tions and persecutions, despotism and civil discord, and 
exhausting wars. 

Sec. 14. Mahomet and his Followers, the Saracens and 
Turks — their Successes, Decline, and Character. 

Mahomet was born at Mecca about the year 569, had 
his first visions, dreams, or pretended revelations, when 
he was about thirty-five or forty years old, and was 
driven from Mecca as a false prophet, and fled to Medina, 
with a few followers, in the year 622. At Medina he 
commenced his system of aggressive warfare on a small 
scale — plundering caravans, and attempting to propagate 
his religion by the sword — under the pretence of de- 
stroying idolatry. 

The design of Mahomet seems to have been to estab- 
lish a new religion and to found an empire — making 
himself prophet and chief priest, monarch and general. 
The revelations announced, and the religious system and 
theocratic government established by him, were well 
adapted to the hot climate, fervid imagination, and no- 
madic character of the Arabs. Hence Mahometanism 
spread rapidly through Arabia, took deep root among 
the Arabs, constituted a bond of union between them, 
and served to unite them as one people, and one nation, 
under the banner and the government of the prophet. 
Though he died in the year 632 (only ten years after his 
flight from Mecca), and left no son, yet, having united the 
inhabitants of Arabia in one religious faith, and under 
one government (a theocratic monarchy), which held them 
together under his successors, they went forward under 
the banners of Islamism, to conquer and plunder other 
nations, and to aid in propagating his doctrines. 

7 



I46 MAHOMET AND HIS FOLLOWERS. 

The followers of Mahomet were known as Saracens, 
and also as Moslems. Abubekir, his father-in-law and 
lieutenant, was acknowledged as his successor, and pro- 
claimed Caliph. Abubekir proclaimed a holy war against 
Syria, and invited the faithful to rally around his stand- 
ard to take that country out of the hands of the infidels, as 
he stigmatized the Greek Christians and the Jews.* They 
invaded Syria, took the fortress of Bozra in 633, Damas- 
cus in 634, and Jerusalem in 637 ; and achieved the 
conquest of the whole country between the years 633 
and 639. 

They also invaded Persia, fought a bloody battle with 
the main Persian army on the plains of Cadesia in 636, 
and achieved a great victory ; which enabled the victors 
to pass the river Tigris without opposition. They 
pursued the Persians to their capital, took it by assault ; 
and the whole of Persia was conquered, and submitted to 
the faith and empire of the Moslems, between the years 
633 and 651. 

They invaded Egypt in 638, and Cairo, Memphis, and 
other cities submitted without much opposition — the 
Jacobite Christians hailing them as friends and deliverers. 
Gibbon says " The Monophysite controversy, and the 
persecution of the Emperors, converted a sect into a 
nation, and alienated Egypt from tJicir religion and gov- 
ernment. The Saracens were received as the deliverers of 
the yacobite Church ; and a secret and effectual treaty was 
opened during the siege of Memphis, between a victori- 
ous army and a people of slaves." Mosheim says " that 
the Monophy sites and Nestorians,fidl of 1'esentment against 
the Greeks, from whom they had suffered the bitterest and 
most injurious treatment, assisted the Arabians in the 
conquest of several provinces, into which the religion of 
Mahomet was afterwards introduced." 

The Saracens took Alexandria in the year 640, after a 
siege of sixteen months, and thus completed the conquest 
of Egypt. They got an enormous amount of treasure, 
plunder and spoils in the capital of Persia, and a large 
amount also in Alexandria and all the principal cities of 
Egypt, Persia and Syria — which served to confirm them 
in their Moslem faith, and to stimulate their courage and 



MAHOMET AND HIS FOLLOWERS. 1 47 

ambition for other conquests. They retained the do- 
minion of all those countries, and established therein 
the Mahometan religion. Such a succession of victories 
without any great reverses, the conquest of so many 
large and rich countries in so short a period, and the 
establishment of their dominion over more than forty 
millions of people, were truly wonderful achievements — 
such as had not been known since the time of Alexan- 
der the Great. 

The Saracens continued their system of aggressive and 
predatory warfare, both in Asia and northern Africa ; 
but their conquests were more or less retarded by occa- 
sional defeats, caused in part by dissensions and divi- 
sions, revolts and civil wars among themselves. The 
only missionaries they sent forth to propagate Mahome- 
tanism, were armies — sent to conquer and plunder, and 
to compel the vanquished to submit to the Moslem faith, 
or pay tribute. The Turks and the pastoral nations of 
Tartary were the only people who accepted the Mahom- 
etan religion voluntarily and without compulsion, or the 
convincing argument of the sword. 

They conquered all the Asiatic provinces of the 
Greek Empire, besieged Constantinople twice, but were 
defeated, and obliged to abandon the attempt. They 
made a series of invasions of the African provinces of the 
empire during the last half of the seventh century ; 
fought numerous battles with various success ; took 
Carthage in the year 698, and finally conquered and ob- 
tained dominion over all northern Africa, from Egypt to 
the Atlantic ocean, in the year 709. In 710 they passed 
over the Mediterranean and invaded Spain ; conquered 
that country in the course of three years ; and held do- 
minion over a large portion of Spain more than seven 
hundred years. They passed over the Pyrenees in 721 ; 
conquered and occupied some of the southern maritime 
provinces of France ; marched north with a large army, 
and were finally defeated by the Franks and Germans, 
under Charles Martel, near the city of Tours, and in the 
heart of France, in the year 732 ; which put an end to 
their conquests in France, and they were soon driven back 
into Spain. That signal defeat, and their defeats before 



I48 MAHOMET AND HIS FOLLOWERS. 

Constantinople, saved nearly all Europe from the domin- 
ion of the Moslems, and saved Christianity from being 
totally overthrown, and nearly extinguished. 

The empire of the Saracens was never materially ex- 
tended after that period. Having been corrupted with 
spoils, luxury and power, and had their ardor and courage 
depressed by signal defeats — divisions and factions, and 
strifes for the Caliphate sprang up among them ; sev- 
eral caliphs were deposed and murdered ; the Moslems 
of Spain revolted in the year 756 and elected a Caliph 
to rule over them ; there were revolts in several other 
provinces ; and the whole empire was distracted and 
demoralized. The rival Caliphs maintained splendid and 
magnificent courts at Bagdad and at Cordova in Spain, 
and were sunk in luxury and sensuality, while their 
people were sunk in ignorance, and oppressed by an in- 
supportable tyranny. 

Ibrahim, the son of Aglab, Governor of the African 
provinces (now the states of Barbary), revolted, established 
the independence of those provinces ; and he and his de- 
scendants (known as Aglabites) held the sovereignty of 
the country about one hundred and twenty years — when 
they were conquered in the year 920, and subjected to a 
usurping caliph — a descendant of Fatima, the daughter 
of the prophet. In the year 980 Al Moez, the fourth of 
the Fatimite caliphs, conquered Egypt, and established 
his court at Cairo. 

Spain and the African provinces never became sub- 
ject again to the Caliph of Bagdad. The empire of the 
Saracens was divided into three theocratic monarchies, 
which occasionally made war upon each other ; and the 
caliphs of Bagdad and Cairo, were frequently involved 
in exhausting wars with the Greek Empire, and also with 
the Crusaders ; and finally sank under the dominion of 
the Turks and Tartars. Bagdad was taken by the Tar- 
tars, and an end put to the empire of the Saracens in the 
year 1258 ; and Constantinople was taken by the Turks, 
and an end put to the Greek Empire in the year 1453. 

A hot climate made the Saracens fickle and change- 
able in their feelings, and adverse to industry ; the cor- 
rupting influences of Mahometanism and indolence, 



MAHOMET AND HIS FOLLOWERS. 1 49 

plunder and military despotism, tended to demoralize 
them, and to unfit them for quiet submission to any ruler 
who was not a successful military chieftain, constantly 
leading them to victory, and to new conquests and spoils. 
They needed the civilizing influences of a well-organized 
government and a good code or system of laws — to give 
security to person and property — to restrain the rapacity 
and tyranny of public officers, the disorders of the dis- 
contented, and the revolts of the ambitious. 

The Saracens, in the zenith of their power, ruled over 
countries which once contained more than eighty mil- 
lions of inhabitants — including some of the best and most 
favored portions of the earth. But those countries were 
devastated and depopulated by religious persecutions and 
civil wars ; by wars between the Greeks and Persians ; 
wars between the Greeks and Saracens ; wars be- 
tween the divisions and factions of the Saracens ; wars 
between the Turks and Saracens ; wars between the 
Crusaders and the Mahometans ; and finally, wars between 
the Turks and the Greeks of the eastern empire. 

Having those rich possessions, they lived in indolence 
and ease, and made no improvements, except to erect a 
few fine palaces and mosques, and to fortify some cities. 
They borrowed some of the learning, science and useful 
arts of the countries they conquered, and also from 
Greece ; and had a few schools of some merit ; but they 
made no inventions of any account, except the art of 
distillation — and with that exception, they did nothing 
to enlarge the boundaries of human knowledge. They 
seemed to have no conceptions of the science of agricul- 
ture ; paid no attention, or very little, to irrigation, which 
is so necessary in those countries ; constructed no great 
roads, canals or water-works ; made very little use of 
navigable waters, and none at all of water-power ; made 
very little use of timber, and none whatever of machinery 
for mechanical and manufacturing purposes. 

Such is the outline of the history of the conquests and 
fall of the Saracens ; and the Turks, corrupted by the 
same religious system and doctrines, have had a similar 
and equally ignoble career, during the last eight hundred 
years. They have been declining in power for more 



150 ON THE CAUSES OF THE DECLINE AND FALL 

than a century. The Saracens were a nation of nomads, 
soldiers and freebooters ; there were but few agricul- 
turists, mechanics and laborers among them. The Turks 
have not so much of the wandering and freebooter char- 
acter : but they have the same aversion to labor, and 
nearly all the other characteristics of the Saracens. 

Mahometanism is not adapted to the arts of peace — 
nor to much individual or national industry. It contains 
no element of association and organization for industrial, 
educational, or religious purposes ; no element of organi- 
zation for any purpose except war and plunder. Pagan 
as well as Christian nations have generally repaired in 
time of peace, the ravages of war ; but such has never 
been the case with any Mahometan nation. The Turks 
have now enjoyed, for more than four hundred years, 
the sovereignty of Turkey in Europe and all the domin- 
ions of the Saracens, with as much peace as a Mahome- 
tan nation is capable of maintaining — and yet those fine 
countries are as much dilapidated and laid waste, depop- 
ulated and impoverished at this day, as they were at the 
end of the Crusades. 

Sec. 15. On the Causes of the Decline and Fall of the 
Roman and Gteek Empires — and of the Conquests of the 
Mahometans. 

Let us inquire into the causes, or the principal cause 
of such an unfortunate series of events as have occurred 
in the countries which formed the Roman Empire in the 
zenith of its power. I apprehend very few will presume 
to charge the rise of Mahometanism, and the conquests 
of the barbarous Saracens and Turks, to the decrees and 
the direct agency of the Supreme Being ; and therefore 
we must look among human agencies, for the causes of 
such disastrous events. 

The Western Empire crumbled to pieces under the in- 
vasions and fierce attacks of numerous tribes of barba- 
rians, by reason of being distracted and weakened by 
various causes. The immediate causes may be classed 
as follows : 

1st. The many civil wars ; and the animosities excited 



OF THE ROMAN AND GREEK EMPIRES. 15 1 

and the exhaustion produced by them, and by foreign 
wars. . 

2nd. The antagonisms and animosities excited by differ- 
ences of religion, by religious persecutions, and the execu- 
tion of laws and edicts made for the impracticable purpose 
of securing uniformity of religious opinions and worship. 

The more remote causes were — 

1st. The immense extent of the empire — embracing 
so many countries, having no natural bonds of union be- 
tween them. 

2nd. Differences of origin, and great differences of 
character among the peoples of those different countries ; 
and the want of unity of interest among them. 

3d. The want of a common language, of a common 
history, and of any bond of union between them, except 
the Roman civil laws. 

4th. The defects in the organic laws of the empire. 

5th. The great defects in the criminal laws ; in the 
modes of trying and punishing crime ; and also in the 
military laws — in the organization of military courts for 
the trial and punishment of military offences — for the 
enforcement of discipline. 

6th. The dissoluteness, prodigality and corruption of 
many of the emperors and public officers. 

7th. The licentiousness and insubordination, arrogance 
and seditious spirit of the army, during the most of the 
third century, and the latter part of the second century. 

Several of these causes concurred in many instances 
to involve the empire in civil war. In the year 193, a sedi- 
tion broke out in the camp, and two or three hundred of the 
most desperate soldiers marched with arms in their hands 
to the Imperial Palace, and assassinated the Emperor 
Pertinax ; and fifteen other emperors were assassinated 
by their own soldiers, mostly in a similar manner between 
that time and the year 285. There were two civil wars 
during the last ten years of the second century ; eleven, 
besides several provincial revolts, in the third century; 
and six during the first quarter of the fourth century. 

The arrogance and insubordination of the soldiers were 
checked by the more severe discipline of Diocletian and 
his successors, and perhaps by the influences of Chris- 



152 ON THE CAUSES OF THE DECLINE AND FALL 

tianity also, in the time of Constantine and his succes- 
sors. The corruption of courts and public officers, of the 
soldiers and the people, and the savage propensity to 
resort to murder and assassination as a remedy for wrongs 
and public grievances, so common in the third century, 
was greatly lessened by the influence of Christianity, 
after the time of Constantine. The principles and moral 
precepts of Christianity, unaccompanied by religious 
dissensions and persecutions, tended, not only to increase 
the moral sense of the people, but also to improve the 
morals and increase the sense of justice of public officers, 
and to increase the fidelity of soldiers, and the stability 
of the government. 

The Eastern or Greek Empire was weakened and pre- 
pared to crumble to pieces under the attacks of the 
Mahometans, by a train of causes and consequences sim- 
ilar to those which prepared the Western Empire for the 
conquests of the barbarians ; except that religious dis- 
sensions and persecutions were more violent and longer 
in operation, and therefore had much greater influence 
upon the decline and fall of the eastern, than of the 
Western Empire. Religious dissensions and persecutions 
excited many mobs and massacres, civil wars and emi- 
grations, during a period of more than three hundred 
years, before the death of Mahomet. They not only con- 
tributed directly to devastate and depopulate the country, 
but also to render the invasions of the barbarians and 
Persians more successful ; they may therefore properly 
be regarded as the principal cause of that exhaustion and 
extreme weakness, which rendered the most of the con- 
quests of the Saracens comparatively easy. 

The secret of the wonderful success of the Saracens 
lay in the truths and precepts of the Koran, which gave 
a religious sanction to the lusts of the flesh, and to ag- 
gressive warfare and plunder ; in that system of warfare, 
which made war support war, and rewarded the [Moslem 
soldier with plunder ; in the enthusiasm and fanaticism 
which the Koran, and that system of warfare, and great 
success inspired ; and in the distracted and impoverished 
condition of the Greek and Persian Empires. 

The Greeks, as well as the Romans, were greatly su- 



OF THE ROMAN AND GREEK EMPIRES. 153 

perior to the barbarians, the Saracens, and the Persians 
also, in the useful arts and industry : in military organi- 
zation and discipline : in equipments, supplies and 
munitions of war, and also in the science and art of 
war ; and if they had not been divided, distracted, and 
exhausted by discords and civil wars — growing out of, 
or aggravated by, religious dissensions and persecu- 
tions during several centuries, there is no reason to 
doubt that they might have defended themselves against 
all their enemies, and that they would have crushed the 
Saracens, when they first attacked the cities of Syria, 
and put an end to the further progess of the army, the 
dominion, and the religion of the Mahometans. 

If the Roman government had not interfered in matters 
of religion, had not attempted to establish any religious 
creed, but protected all sects in the enjoyment of their 
religious opinions and worship, and allowed each and all 
to propagate their opinions by moral suasion only — on 
the American plan — paganism would have passed away 
gradually and quietly, before the influence of the Gospel, 
and without any convulsion of the empire ; the people 
would have been divided into many sects, as the Ameri- 
can people now are ; they would have lived together in 
peace and harmony under the same government and 
laws ; and the only internal discords would have arisen 
from rival emperors, and aspirants to the imperial purple ; 
they would have been able to repel all invasions of the 
empire, and to extend the Roman arms gradually over 
all Europe and Western Asia. Under such a system of 
religious liberty and non-intervention by the government 
in matters of religion, there would have been no more 
causes for the decay and destruction of the Roman Empire 
than have been in operation during the last two centuries, 
for the destruction of the Chinese, Russian, and British 
Empires ; and the Goths and Saracens, Turks and Tartars, 
would never have become great conquerors. On the con- 
trary the Goths and Vandals, Germans and Franks 
would have been civilized and christianized by Roman 
influences, and become Roman colonists : the Roman and 
Greek Empires would never have been subverted by 
foreign enemies, but would have been eventually divided 



154 MEANS OF INSTRUCTION AND EDUCATION. 

between the sons of emperors — or among distinguished 
generals, as was the empire of Alexander the Great, 
without subverting Christianity or Roman civilization, 
in any of its subdivisions. 

What is it that keeps the vast empire of Russia from 
crumbling to pieces, and enables the Czar to rule over so 
many countries and peoples of different origin, language, 
and religion ? Is it not organization and laws, and the 
influences of Christianity, which teaches the necessity of 
government, and the duty of submission to it ? What 
is it that holds three hundred millions of people in sub- 
jection to the government of China ? Is it not organiza- 
tion and laws, and the moral influences of Buddhism and 
the writings of Confucius ? Religious liberty exists in 
China, and religious toleration in Russia. 

Sec. i 6. Means of Instruction and Edncatio7i — and of 
Diffusing Knowledge, 

To communicate knowledge is to instruct : and to 
diffuse knowledge and information is to instruct the 
people. There are many means and modes of instruc- 
tion and education in use ; which, when stated in the order 
they came into use, may be classed as follows : 1st, 
practice in the common labors and duties of life, in 
industry or business, or in the art of war ; 2d, schools 
and institutions of learning ; 3d, books and libraries ; 
4th, preaching and lecturing ; 5 th, post-offices and 
mails ; 6th, the press, newspapers and periodicals ; and 
lastly, the electric telegraph. 

Savages and barbarians, the unschooled laborers of 
England, Ireland, and other countries, and even slaves, 
are instructed by the labor and acts of others, and edu- 
cated by their own practice and labor, in some occupa- 
tion or employment. The kind of education first stated 
is, therefore, common to all mankind. 

The pagan nations of antiquity were taught by their 
priests and rulers the simple fact, that certain things 
were gods, or represented gods ; that certain forms and 
ceremonies, rites and sacrifices were necessary to pro- 
pitiate their gods. The minds of the people were filled 



MEANS OF INSTRUCTION AND EDUCATION. 1 55 

with dark superstitions, and faith in absurd mysteries 
and dogmas ; but no proper conceptions of the charac- 
ter of the Supreme Being were ever taught in any pagan 
country. In fact, no Pagan nation (except the Hindoos, 
Buddhists and Magians) ever had any definite ideas of the 
Supreme Being, or of the immortality of the human soul, 
or ever formed much of a system of religious doctrines. 
All their opinions upon such subjects were vague and 
shadowy, and more or less disconnected. Their priest- 
hood presided at and conducted their ceremonies, but 
never attempted to deliver formal addresses, lectures or 
sermons — to expound their dogmas to the people. With 
the exception of the Hindoos and Buddhists, the people 
of pagan nations never had much instruction in any age 
of the world, which even assumed to be religious. They 
had no instruction upon religious subjects which exer- 
cised the mind very much, or had much influence in 
developing and improving it. Such has ever been, and 
is still, the condition of things in pagan countries. 

The Israelites had the laws of Moses, and the teach- 
ings of the prophets, which were recorded and read in 
the synagogues to the people on the Sabbath ; but no 
regular system of preaching and expounding orally the 
word of God and his laws, was practised even among the 
Israelites, until the Christian era. It is almost unknown 
at this day, among pagan nations, and but very little 
practised among the Mahometans. 

Confucius and Aristotle, Socrates and Plato, were all 
philosophers and lecturers, and the three last were 
teachers. The opinions, moral precepts and doctrines 
of Confucius, formed the foundation of the Chinese 
system of morals. Many of them were very generally 
received as maxims and principles of philosophy. They 
formed the basis of many of their laws and usages, and 
have had great influence upon the morals and destiny 
of that peculiar people, for more than two thousand 
years. They formed and still form a substitute for reli- 
gion for a large portion of the people of China. They 
do not conflict, but harmonize with the moral precepts 
of Buddhism, which is the only religion professed by any 
considerable number of the Chinese. 



156 PREACHING, ORGANIZED CHURCHES, AND SCHOOLS. 

The philosophers of Assyria and Persia, Egypt and 
Phoenicia, Greece and Rome, had great influence upon 
the governments of those countries, and upon the man- 
ners and customs, and the morals of the people — though 
the masses of the people had no instruction, either in 
schools or in the pulpit, by books or papers, lectures or 
addresses. There were in ancient times, no means of 
diffusing instruction and information among the people, 
except through the government and a very few schools. 
We have now the additional agencies of movable types 
and the printing-press, innumerable books and news- 
papers, the pulpit and the lecture-room, the post-office 
and the electric telegraph. 

Sec. 1 7. Preaching, Organised Churches, and Schools. 

Intelligent preaching furnishes seeds of thought and 
germs of intelligence and reasoning, which exercise and 
aid in developing and expanding the brain and the 
intellect. An educated, well informed and intellectual 
clergy, preaching regularly on the Sabbath, and ad- 
dressing the people occasionally upon public ques- 
tions, exercise great influence over them, and wield 
great power in the formation of public opinion. A large 
portion of the education, moral precepts, mental devel- 
opment, and intelligence of every Christian people, has 
come from the pulpit. Mahometan and pagan nations 
enjoy no such advantages of education. The Mahome- 
tans have prayers and other ceremonies in their mosques, 
but seldom have preaching or religious instruction of 
any kind. The priests of Buddhism preach some ; but 
not with regularity, as the Christian clergy do. Preach- 
ing among other Pagan nations is unknown. 

Preaching, and the organization of churches, were the 
means specially ordained for the propagation of Chris- 
tianity. They form a distinctive part of the system of 
Christianity — the part which gave it such vitality and 
force, that it survived the persecutions of nearly three 
centuries, before it was recognized and protected by the 
government of Rome. 

The Mahometan and pagan nations have priests and 



THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY. 1 57 

temples for worship, but no organized religious societies ; 
and very seldom any preaching or addresses upon reli- 
ious or moral subjects. Regular preaching cannot be 
maintained without organized religious societies. 

Schools in Mahometan countries are established and 
supported by the government, or by private enterprise ; 
but there are very few of them. A similar state of things 
exists in all partly civilized Pagan countries, except 
China and Japan — in which schools have been estab- 
lished by the government, for the general education of 
the people. In Christian countries, until a comparatively 
recent period, the schools were mostly established and 
supported by religious societies and churches ; and 
such is the case at this day, with nearly all the colleges 
of the Christian world. Ancient learning was preserved 
by the Church from totally perishing, during the dark 
ages. Where common schools have been established by 
law in Christian countries, it has generally been done 
through the influence of the clergy, and Christian churches. 
The influence of Christianity and preaching, and the 
agency of religious societies and churches in establish- 
ing schools, and encouraging their establishment by 
governments, may be regarded as the principal causes 
of the superiority of Christian over Mahometan and 
pagan nations. 

Sec. 18. The Influence of Christianity upon the Appre- 
ciation of Human Life, upon Ambition, and upon the 
Spirit of Revenue. 

Barbarous and pagan nations have always had a 
low appreciation of human life, and of personal rights. 
Infanticide was common among the most civilized 
pagan nations of antiquity, as well as among barba- 
rians ; and it is still frequent in China. The slaughter 
of all the male children of Bethlehem under two years of 
age, by the order of Herod, king of Judea, soon after the 
birth of Christ, shows the small appreciation of hu- 
man life among the Jews at that period. That fact is 
equally significant as the cry of the multitude, at the 
time of the crucifixion, to crucify our Saviour. 



158 THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY. 

Such has been and is the influence of Christianity, 
that infanticide has been and is regarded and punished 
as a crime, by all Christian nations ; and it is safe to 
say, that it is a crime of unfrequent occurrence in Chris- 
tian countries. 

Savages and barbarians generally impose no moral 
restraints upon their inclinations to revenge injuries, 
insults, or supposed insults, which they may have re- 
ceived ; and in the violence of their unrestrained pas- 
sions and vindictive feelings, they often kill persons for 
trifling causes. Such was the case also with a consider- 
able portion of the people of nearly all the pagan nations 
of antiquity, whose revengeful passions were subject to 
legal restraints and the restraint of fear ; but were sel- 
dom restrained by moral sentiments and principles. 
Some very good Roman emperors were assassinated by 
their own soldiers, in the second and third centuries — to 
gratify a spirit of revenge, for trifling causes. 

When the leader of one party or faction prevailed 
over another in ancient times, or one aspirant to the 
supreme power achieved success over his rivals, he often 
proscribed them, and ordered them and their most influ- 
ential friends to be put to death, without the forms of a 
trial. Great numbers of senators and men of distinction 
were proscribed and killed by order of the Roman con- 
sul and tyrant Marius, by the Roman dictator Sylla, 
and also by Mark Antony and Octavius Caesar. Simi- 
lar practices are still very prevalent in Mahometan 
countries, where it is common for a new sovereign com- 
ing into power, to consign to death all persons, including 
his own brothers, who have been, or may become, rivals 
and aspirants for the throne. 

All such murders and massacres are either to gratify 
a spirit of revenge, or a spirit of ambition and jealousy — 
and to remove persons who are feared as possible rivals. 
They indicate a low appreciation of human life, and 
violent passions, unrestrained by moral principle, or a 
proper sense of justice. Such barbarities have been very 
generally condemned by the Christian world ; and though 
still common in pagan and Mahometan nations, they 
have been very unfrequent in Christian countries for 



AMUSEMENTS AND VICES. 1 59 

fifteen hundred years, and almost unknown for several 
centuries ; and captives taken in war have been treated 
with humanity, and ransomed, or exchanged — instead 
of being killed, or sold as slaves — as was the custom of 
the ancients. 

To what cause or causes can this great change in the 
sentiments and the spirit, and also in the usages of Chris- 
tian nations be attributed ? Should it not be very largely 
credited to the spirit and influence of Christianity — to 
the principles of purity and humanity, of justice and sub- 
mission to law inculcated in the Scriptures ? 

Sec. 19. Amusements and Vices. 

The pursuit of amusements constitutes a part of the 
education of a people, and has great influence not only 
upon their manners and customs, but also upon their 
industry and morals, and upon their prosperity and pro- 
gress. 

Music — both instrumental and vocal, also dancing, and 
recitals of poetry, were common among all the civilized 
nations of antiquity, as much so as they are at the pres- 
ent time. But concerts of music originated in Italy, 
about the middle of the sixteenth century. The drama 
and theatres are supposed to have originated in Greece. 

Athletic games originated in Greece, but were more 
common and frequent among the Romans than the 
Greeks. Chariot-racing was common both among the 
Greeks and Romans. The circus is supposed to have 
originated among the Romans. Exhibitions of feats of 
gladiators, and contests with wild beasts, were connected 
with the Roman circus, and were of a very brutal char- 
acter. Triumphal processions of victorious generals 
were very common among the Romans, and also among 
the Persians. 

Chess and dice are ancient games. Dice were in- 
vented at an early day, and used for amusement and 
sporting, and also for gambling, by the ancients as well 
as by the moderns ; but cards, wheels of fortune and 
other chance modes of gambling, are believed to be in- 
ventions of modern times. Cards were invented or in- 



l60 AMUSEMENTS AND VICES. 

troduced into France for the amusement of the king and 
his court, in the thirteenth century ; but were soon used 
for gambling, as well as for amusement. Billiards and 
bowling alleys are amusements of modern origin. Fairs 
for commercial purposes, for the sale of manufactures 
and nice articles of mechanical industry, were occasion- 
ally held ' in ancient times ; but agricultural fairs are of 
recent origin. During the present century, annual fairs 
have become common in nearly all the States of this 
Union, and in almost every country and province of 
Europe. They bring together great numbers of persons, 
and have become social gatherings for purposes of recrea- 
tion and amusement, of deep interest to millions and tens 
of millions of people. 

Popular lectures upon literary subjects and science, 
panoramas and travelling menageries and circuses, are 
all of very recent origin — not much in use until the 
commencement of the nineteenth century. They serve 
to amuse many millions of people. The educational in- 
fluences of these things are very great and moral also. 
They are interesting as well as instructive. They are 
confined to Christian nations ; the Mahometan and 
pagan nations of the old world, have neither the advan- 
tages nor the enjoyments of such entertainments. 

The amusements of the ancients were mostly of a 
coarse and athletic character, in which females could 
participate only as spectators ; many of them being of a 
barbarous character — tending to harden and brutalize 
the feelings, without communicating any valuable infor- 
mation. 

The art of distillation, and the invention of playing 
cards and various games of chance, have rendered the 
vices of drunkenness and gambling, perhaps five or ten 
times as great among Christian nations of the present 
age, as they were among the ancient Greeks and Ro- 
mans ; the amusements of the latter were less in num- 
ber, and greatly inferior in character to those of the 
former. Drunkenness is the most prevalent among 
Protestant nations of cold and temperate climates, and 
gambling among Catholic nations of hot and warm 
climates. 



DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS OF LAW. l6l 

All persons should have leisure and recreation, and 
amusements also, as well as industry ; but pleasure-seek- 
ing should never be made the business of life. 

All amusements when carried to excess and pursued 
as a mode of spending time, tend to dissipate the mind 
and to unfit both body and mind for regular industry, and 
the sober employments of life. The constant pursuit of 
amusement and pleasure, becomes dissipation and vice. 
Fashionable amusements have become so numerous and 
enticing, that fashionable dissipation is now vastly 
greater, and perhaps five times as great as it was during 
the most luxurious age of the Romans. Great numbers 
of persons make amusement the principal business of 
life. The progress and the improvements of modern 
times are not, therefore, unmixed with evil. 

Sec. 20. Law and Jicstice may be Developed tinder an 
Imperial Despotism. 

Despotism is developed and grows up in the pride 
and arrogance of power, and seems the natural fruit of the 
arrogance and selfishness of large majorities, in republi- 
can countries, as well as in monarchies. It applies equally 
to religious and to political majorities, and is as intol- 
erant and oppressive in the former, as in the latter. 
There is but a poor chance for liberty in any country, 
where a large majority of the people belong to one re- 
ligious sect. 

The purest principles of law and justice, and a good 
system of jurisprudence, may grow up under an imperial 
government, exercising unlimited power. Many of the 
Roman emperors favored equality and justice among all 
classes below the Imperial family. The Emperor Tiberias 
held the Senate in contempt, and was tyrannical and 
cruel toward those that questioned the propriety of his 
measures ; and yet he felt and expressed pride in the 
impartial administration of justice throughout the empire. 
Under the republic of Rome, the laws favored the 
patrician class, and were in many respects unequal and 
unjust. Under the empire the Roman law grew up, 
was gradually perfected in many respects, codified and 



1 62 LIBERTY HOW DEVELOPED. 

reduced to a system, and improved during a period of 
six hundred years — until it attained such completeness 
and perfection, that it has been the storehouse of law 
for the civilized world, from that time to the present. 
The Napoleon Code, the great legal light of modern 
times, was conceived, formed and matured under the 
consular power, which was nearly absolute. But liberty 
and good systems of government, were never developed 
or improved under such influences. 

Sec. 21. Liberty — how developed. 

The principles of liberty are always conceived and born 
in weakness and humility ; either in small states, or in 
minorities in great states and nations — and often under 
the influence of persecution. 

Religious toleration, the federal system of government, 
and many of the principles and usages of civil and 
political liberty in the Netherlands, were the effect of 
the joint influence of monarchical and ecclesiastical 
tyranny and persecution. Religious toleration, the 
federal system of government, and some degree of 
civil and political liberty, all grew up in the moun- 
tains of Switzerland, in small, weak and poor com- 
munities' and cantons, under the influence of common 
dangers from their more powerful neighbors. The in- 
dependence of the confederated cantons was acknowl- 
edged in 1648, and their religious, civil and political 
liberties were completely established by their new con- 
stitution, in 1848. 

The legal and constitutional provisions for the security 
of liberty in England, were suggested by the assump- 
tions and the tyranny of Charles I., Charles II. and James 
II. The petition of rights was adopted in 1629, the 
habeas corpus act passed in 1678, and the bill to estab- 
lish religious toleration in 1689. 

When religious toleration was allowed nowhere in 
Europe, except in Holland and parts of Switzerland, and 
all the rest of the Christian world was subject to more or 
less ecclesiastical tyranny — complete religious liberty 
was conceived and matured by Roger Williams, under 



LIBERTY HOW DEVELOPED. 1 63 

the domination and persecution of the Puritans. When 
he was driven out of Massachusetts in 1636, he fled to 
Rhode Island, where he planted a colony, and estab- 
lished civil and religious liberty as the corner-stone of 
the fabric. 

The first settlers in Maryland were Roman Catholics, 
under Lord Baltimore, the proprietary of the province. 
Having witnessed and experienced the influence of the 
cruel persecutions which both Catholics and Protestants 
had suffered in England, and appreciating religious as 
well as civil liberty, and also the Christian virtues of 
charity and justice, he invited Protestants as well as 
Catholic settlers, and practically established religious 
toleration in Maryland from its first settlement. In 1649 
he drew up a bill which was passed by the provincial 
assembly, whereby religious liberty was established by 
law. 

The Dutch from Holland, planted colonies in the pres- 
ent States of New York and New Jersey, and called the 
country New Netherlands. The New Netherlands were 
conquered by the English in 1664, and became British 
colonies. In the treaty of cession, the religious rights 
and liberties of the Dutch were secured to them ; which, 
thereafter, secured religious toleration in the colonies of 
New York and New Jersey ; and those colonies became 
an asylum for the Quakers, Baptists, and other persecu- 
ted sects, that were excluded from the Puritan colonies. 

Pennsylvania was settled by the Quakers under Wm. 
Penn, in 1682. In accordance with the pacific and 
Christian principles of his sect, Wm. Penn and his 
followers established the principles of religious liberty 
in the province of Pennsylvania, for all sects of Chris- 
tians, except Roman Catholics. That policy induced 
great numbers of refugees of various religious sects — 
fleeing from religious dissensions and persecutions in 
Europe, to seek liberty and safety in that province. 

France being distracted with civil wars, growing out 
of religious dissensions and ecclesiastical domination, 
Henry IV. issued the edict of Nantes in 1598; under 
which the people enjoyed religious toleration and domes- 
tic peace, until its revocation by Louis XIV. in 1685. 



164 DEVELOPMENT OF THE 

Religious liberty was established in France by the revo- 
lution of 1789 — overturned by Napoleon Land religious 
toleration established in its stead, in the early part of the 
nineteenth century. 

The thirty years' religious war in Germany, termina- 
ting with the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, established 
religious toleration, and some degree of religious liberty, 
in all the German kingdoms, and in Sweden also. 

The French colonized Canada, and established there 
the Roman Catholic Church. English and Anglo-Amer- 
ican troops took Quebec in 1759, and Montreal in 1760. 
At the peace of 1763, France ceded the Canadas to Eng- 
land, by a treaty which reserved to the inhabitants not 
only their property and civil rights, but also the free 
enjoyment of the religion which they professed. That 
treaty was the means of effectually securing the religious 
liberties of both Catholics and Protestants. 

Such were the germs of civil and religious liberty in 
modern Europe and America ; which were gradually 
developed into the perfect freedom which is now enjoyed 
in this country and in several countries of Europe, and 
is extending its benign influences into every country of 
the civilized world. 

Sec. 22. Development of the Legislative power of the 
Commons of England. 

A brief statement of the development of the legisla- 
tive power of the House of Commons of England, has 
been given heretofore {ante, 39 to 42). " Hallam says 
that " The first instance of actual representation which 
occurs in our history, was only four years after the con- 
quest ; when William caused twelve persons skilled in 
the customs of England, to be chosen from each county, 
who were sworn to inform him rightly of their laws ; 
and these so ascertained were ratified by the consent of 
the Great Council. But there is no appearance that 
these twelve deputies of each county were invested with 
any higher authority than that of declaring their ancient 
usages." The entire legislative power of the kingdom was 
then, and for a century and a half afterwards, vested in 



HOUSE OF COMMONS. l6$ 

the king and his Great Council— composed of the Lords 
Temporal and Spiritual — of the Barons, Archbishops, 
Bishops, Abbots and higher clergy, who held lands. 

Such was the tyranny and despicable character of 
king John, that the most of the Barons, Bishops and 
higher clergy, including Archbishop Langton, formed 
a conspiracy against him — to reform the government, 
limit the powers of the monarch, and thereby secure their 
own rights and liberties, and the liberties of the people. 
The king was aware of the confederacy or conspiracy 
against him, and made an effort to organize a party 
among the people, to aid him in defeating it. M. Guizot, 
the learned French author and distinguished statesman, 
says : Whilst the Great Barons who were disaffected pre- 
pared to revolt in 12 14, king John convoked a general 
assembly at Oxford. The royal writs ordered the sheriffs 
to summon to that assembly a certain number of cavalry 
soldiers in arms ; other writs ordered that the attend- 
ants of the Barons should come to Oxford without arms ; 
and also enjoined the sheriffs to send to Oxford four dis- 
creet knights, to consult with him in relation to the affairs 
of the kingdom. This, says Guizot, was the first symp- 
tom of the representation of the knights in parliament. 

Again M. Guizot says : it is evident that king John 
sought, in the knights of the counties, a support against 
the barons ; and consequently that the knights then 
formed a class so distinct from the barons, that they 
might be entirely separated from them ; and that they 
were of sufficient importance and power to make an effort 
to secure them as auxiliaries. 

The attempt of John (he says) was not successful. 
The facts prove that, in the struggle between the royal 
powers and the great barons, the knights and other 
freeholders, adhered to the party of the barons, who, in 
reclaiming their own public rights, insisted not less upon 
the interests of the knights and other freemen. 

Magna Charta was extorted by the barons from king 
John in 121 5, and he died the following year. 

Again M. Guizot says : The struggle continued during 
the whole reign of king Henry III. (12 16 to 1272) ; 
and during that time, we see the king without cessation, 



1 66 DEVELOPMENT OF THE 

attempting to induce the knights to abandon the party 
of the barons, and to pass over to his side ; and the 
barons striving to retain them in their ranks. 

At last in 1254, Henry HI. being in Gascony and 
wanting money, ordered the convocation of a parliament 
at London, to demand an extraordinary aid. At the same 
time he addressed writs to the sheriffs, enjoining them 
to cause to be elected in the county court of each county, 
two knights in the place of all and each of them {vice 
omnium et singulorum eorumdem) to deliberate upon the 
aid to be granted to the king. Behold a representation 
real and positive ; the deputies are elected, they are intro- 
duced into the assembly, and they there give their voices. 

Again he says : In the Parliaments called successively 
in 1255, 1257 and 1258, the most violent reproaches were 
addressed to Henry III. for his prodigalities, his vices, 
his foolish enterprises, and over all, for the violation of 
his oaths of fidelity to Magna Charta. Henry being 
alarmed, and seeking to appease the barons to obtain a 
subsidy from them, promised to repair his errors, and to 
reform the government. He decreed that the promised 
reform should be regulated by a Parliament, which he 
called to meet at Oxford, June nth, 1258. 

The Parliament of 1258 was the first assembly which 
received officially the name of Parliament. The barons 
came with arms, and a numerous retinue ; Henry came 
without having taken any precaution against them, and 
found himself their prisoner. Nevertheless, they execu- 
ted their mission, — that is, they submitted the charge of 
deciding upon the projected reforms, to twenty-four 
barons, — twelve to be chosen by the barons themselves, 
and twelve to be named by the king. An unlimited 
authority was entrusted to the mediators ; and they com- 
pletely changed the form of the government. Their 
reforms are known as the provisions of Oxford. 

Another civil war soon broke out ; the barons with the 
Earl of Leicester at their head, flew to arms, battles 
were fought between them and the king's troops, and the 
king and his son Edward were both taken prisoners. 
While he was captive in the hands of Simon de Montfort 
(Leicester) says Hallam — " writs were issued in his name 



HOUSE OF COMMONS. 167 

to all the sheriffs — directing them to return two knights 
for the body of their county, with two burgesses for every 
city and borough contained within it. This therefore is 
the epoch at which the representation of the Commons 
becomes indisputably manifest." Hume says : " This pe- 
riod is commonly esteemed the epoch of the House of 
Commons in England ; and it is certainly the first time 
that historians speak of any representatives sent to Parlia- 
ment by the boroughs. In all the general accounts given 
in preceding times of those assemblies, the prelates and 
barons only, are mentioned as the constituent members." 

M. Guizot says : This innovation was designed to con- 
ciliate popular favor ; and Leicester labored without 
relaxation to preserve it. The deputies of counties and 
boroughs were thus introduced into Parliament, without 
any legislative act, statute or ordinance. The human 
mind had not arrived at a point of elevation sufficient to 
conceive such a design. The facts were developed from 
themselves, in isolation, confusedly, and under the in- 
fluence of peculiar circumstances. 

Great political institutions (says Guizot) generally have 
their origin under weak princes, who have but little capac- 
ity ; they are extorted from them in the midst of troubles, 
which arise during their reigns. They are matured and 
confirmed under princes of greater capacity, who recognize 
their necessity, and comprehend the uses to which they 
can be applied. This happened in England under 
Henry III. and Edward I. Henry, destitute of firmness, 
permitted, though with regret, every concession to escape 
from him which was demanded. His son, capable and 
energetic, did not destroy the institutions which grew 
up under his father's reign — but turned them to his ad- 
vantage. It was by the aid of the parliament, that Ed- 
ward I. rendered his wars and his conquests national. In 
the midst of apparent disorders, great institutions were 
formed little by little ; the innovations of the preceding 
reign became common practice and usage ; and practices 
and usages sanctioned by time, became established cus- 
toms — having the force of law.* 

* See Histoire des ortgines dn Gouvernement Representatif en Eu- 
rope, par M. Guizot, Le^on 11, 12 and 13. 



1 68 DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS OF LAW. 

Such is the mode in which common-law rights in Eng- 
land and all countries were established ; and in which the 
existence, constitution, and powers of the House of Com- 
mons were also developed and established. The latter 
arose partly from the suggestions of political policy, from 
time to time ; but they are mostly the natural develop- 
ments of the condition of society and of the government, 
during the thirteenth century. Selfishness and a clan- 
nish spirit, ambition and temporary expediency, had 
more influence than philosophical reasoning — based on 
a consistent and well-defined theory of government, in 
forming and moulding them. They are based, however, 
to some extent, on sound principles and the laws of 
nature — otherwise they could never have been developed 
by natural and moral causes. They are much more in 
accordance with the laws of nature, than many of the 
visionary philanthropic schemes of theorists and fanatics 
are — which are based on assumed principles, carried out 
to their extreme results. The most that is now required 
in England, is to extend and perfect the principle of 
representation — and to correct its inequalities and irreg- 
ularities. 

The elective representative system of legislation, pre- 
sents the only mode by which the views and opinions of 
the majority of the people can have an influence in mak- 
ing laws, for the government of a large country. Previ- 
ous to the adoption of that system of legislation, states and 
nations were governed either by a monarch, absolute in his 
power, or nearly absolute, by an aristocracy of some kind, 
or by elective chiefs ; and the masses of the people, 
except in very small states, like those of ancient Greece, 
either had no influence at all, or only a very trifling in- 
direct influence in the government. 

For more than half a century after the origin of the 
House of Commons, both houses of Parliament were 
summoned for the purpose merely of voting taxes, coun- 
selling the king, and approving such measures, laws and 
ordinances as he saw fit to adopt — the king assuming 
the sole prerogative of enacting laws. It was not until 
about the year 1341, in the reign of Edward III., that the 
practice of consulting the Lords and Commons in Par- 



DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS OF LAW. 1 69 

liament in enacting laws, became an established usage ; 
and thereafter (Mr. Hallam says), statutes were almost 
always founded upon the petition of the commons. 

The House of Commons was the origin of the elective 
representative system of legislation. It was adopted by 
the Swiss confederation early in the fourteenth century, 
and by the united provinces of the Netherlands in the six- 
teenth century ; was carried to the Anglo-American colo- 
nies in the seventeenth century ; was adopted by France 
in calling the States-General in 1789 ; and has been since 
adopted by every country in America, and by every 
country in Europe, except Turkey and Russia. It con- 
stitutes the main corner-stone of popular power, and of 
popular governments. 

'Sec. 23. The development of Judicial power and of 
the judiciary, into a distinct and independent depart- 
ment of government. 

In despotic and all ancient governments, the adminis- 
tration of justice was regarded and treated as insepa- 
rably connected with, and forming a part of the execu- 
tive power. The monarch administered justice, either 
personally, or by the agency of his appointees ; who 
were subject to his direction, removable at his pleasure, 
and from whose judgments there was no appeal — except 
to the king in person, by whom an appeal was some- 
times informally entertained, and the case reviewed, 
either by himself, or by his council of state. 

Such was the usage in the Roman Empire. The 
praetors were judges of equal rank and independent 
jurisdiction ; and the judgments of each of them were 
final — except so far as the emperor interfered, upon 
informal appeals to him. The judgment of the 
praetor finally decided the matter in controversy be- 
tween the parties, in all cases where the emperor did not 
entertain an appeal. But such judgment did not settle 
the questions of law involved in the suit ; and there was 
no Supreme Court to review and revise his judgment, 
and settle the law of the case authoritatively — so as to 
make it a precedent — binding upon the courts, for the 

8 



170 DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS OF LAW. 

government of other cases — unless we consider the em- 
peror himself, with the assistance of his council of state, 
as constituting a kind of Supreme Court. His decisions, 
decrees and rescripts constituted the only authoritative 
interpretations of the statutes, and final exposition of 
the law. The courts were organized in the same manner, 
under the Republic. There was no Supreme Court, and 
the judgments of each of the praetors were final. After 
the fall of the western empire, there was a similar con- 
dition of things in all the continental nations of Europe, 
until a comparatively recent period. 

The Norman Conquest produced a condition of things 
in England, favorable to the development of such insti- 
tutions, checks and balances of government, as are neces- 
sary to secure civil liberty. The Norman kings were 
dependent upon the barons, and could not hold domin- 
ion of the country, without their aid. The powers of 
the government were therefore divided between the king 
and the lords temporal and spiritual — who formed the 
House of Lords — the legislative council of the kingdom, 
and also the highest court of justice, for the review of 
the decisions and judgments of other courts. 

On the breaking up of the Aula Regis, the distribution 
of its jurisdiction among other tribunals, the creation of 
the courts of Common Pleas and Exchequer Chamber, 
and the establishment of the superior courts at West- 
minster Hall, the House of Lords retained its jurisdic- 
tion, and still retains it, as the highest appellate court 
of the kingdom. Though the court of King's Bench and 
also the court of Exchequer Chamber have power to 
review the decisions of some of the superior courts, 
yet the House of Lords is the court of dernier ressort, — 
whose decisions and judgments are final, — and not only 
determine the causes under consideration, but also settle 
the law, and constitute precedents for the government 
of all the other courts of the kingdom. 

The Judiciary of England was developed as a distinct 
department of the government, during the first two 
hundred and thirty years after the Conquest ; and as- 
sumed substantially its present form, in the thirteenth 
century, under the reign of Edward I. This was the 



DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS OF LAW. 171 

second stage of judicial development ; it was a great 
change from the system prevailing on the continent. 

The judges were still dependent upon the king for 
their places, and removable at his pleasure. The effect 
was, to make many of them servile and truckling instru- 
ments to carry into effect his despotic purposes. Hal- 
lam, in his Constitutional History, says : " It had been 
the practice of the Stuarts, especially in the last years of 
their dynasty, to dismiss judges who showed any dispo- 
sition to thwart the government in political prosecutions. 
The general behavior of the bench had covered it with in- 
famy!' To remedy the evil, it was necessary to estab- 
lish the independence of the bench ; and this was done 
by act of Parliament, of 13th William III. (1701), by 
which it was enacted that the commissions of the judges 
of the Superior Courts, should be made during good be- 
havior — and that their salaries should be established by 
law ; but that it might be lawful to remove them on 
the address of both houses of Parliament. (1st Black 
Com., 267). 

That act completed the system, and was the third 
stage of judicial development, — whereby the judiciary of 
England became an independent, as well as distinct de- 
partment of the government — clothed with power to 
protect the citizen and his property, from the arbitrary 
acts and the illegal exactions of the king and his 
officers. 

The Parliaments of Paris, Toulouse, and other prov- 
inces of France, prior to the revolution, were high courts 
of justice for ]arge districts, of which there were many 
in the kingdom of equal rank — but there was no Su- 
preme Court in France, until the Court of Cassation was 
established in 1790. That court is a Court of appeal — 
to review and revise the decisions and judgments of the 
other courts, and settle the law of each case, — to the 
end that the administration of justice in all the courts, 
may be made uniform. Under the old system, there 
could be no uniformity in the decisions in the several 
districts ; but great diversity in the decisions, as well as 
in the customs. The new organization, partly borrowed 
from England, is a great improvement upon the old ; 



172 DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS OF LAW. 

but the judicial system of France still is and has been 
for centuries, far inferior to that of England. 

It is a fundamental principle of English and Ameri- 
can law, that the judicial department of the government, 
in its action, is independent of the executive and legis- 
lative departments ; and vested with power — not only to 
redress wrongs committed by private persons ; but also 
those committed by high executive and administrative 
officers — and to check, redress, and punish many abuses 
of executive power. The American system of govern- 
ment, also, vests in the Supreme and Superior Courts, 
power to pass upon the constitutionality of every act of 
legislation — so far as it affects individual or corporate 
rights ; and to declare void every such act, which is not 
in accordance with the constitution ; and thus put a check 
to legislative as well as to executive usurpations of power. 

So far as the English rule goes, it works well, in check- 
ing executive abuses of power ; for if the Court miscon- 
strue the law, it is easy for the legislature to amend it, 
and thus obviate the error in future ; but as the Ameri- 
can rule assumes the infallibility of the Court in inter- 
preting the constitution and passing upon the legislative 
powers of the government, or at least assumes the supe- 
riority of the Court in passing upon questions of power, 
if the Court err, in practically annulling an act of legis- 
lation, there is no remedy. Such decisions are not, how- 
ever, of frequent occurrence ; the decision of a bare ma- 
jority of the Supreme Court of the United States in the 
case of Dred Scott — declaring the act of Congress known 
as the Missouri Compromise Act, to be unconstitutional 
and void — being the only great and palpable case of the 
kind, that has occurred in that Court. In fact, that Court 
has had a very obvious leaning towards federal power, and 
has not been equally cautious in passing upon, and de- 
claring unconstitutional and void, acts of State legisla- 
tion. Nor have the State courts been very delicate and 
cautious in overruling acts of State legislation. 

The exercise of such a power by the judiciary, tends 
to conservatism — to confine legislation in some measure 
to beaten tracks, and to restrain it from acts of usurpa- 
tion and enlargements of power. In a federal govern- 



DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS OF LAW. 1 73 

ment like ours, the Supreme Court of the United States 
is very necessary, as an umpire between the federal and 
State governments, and between Congress and the State 
legislatures — to determine, in numerous cases, the bound- 
aries of power between the national and State govern- 
ments, and to check violations of the Constitution of the 
United States, and all encroachments upon federal power. 
In that regard, the Supreme Court of the United States, 
as a distinct and independent department of the govern- 
ment, has exercised a very salutary influence ; it has over- 
ruled a large number of acts of State legislation, as 
contrary to the Constitution of the United States, and 
thereby confined the State governments to their proper 
jurisdiction and sphere of action, and prevented conflicts 
of action in our dual system of government. 

Sec. 24. Progress of Law and Government in Modem 
Europe and America. 

The great Charters of King John and Henry III. of 
England, in the Thirteenth century, were the first great 
improvements in government in modern times. Those 
Charters were soon followed by the election of members 
of the House of Commons by the people, by the sepa- 
ration of the Lords and Commons into two houses, and 
by the adoption of the system of legislation by the con- 
currence of two distinct legislative bodies. 

The confederation of three of the Swiss cantons was 
established early in the Fourteenth century ; and was fol- 
lowed soon afterwards by other cantons joining the con- 
federacy. Then came the treaty of Utrecht — by which 
the confederation of the seven United Provinces of the 
Netherlands, as Holland, was formed in 1579; which 
established religious toleration, and a system of govern- 
ment in many respects entirely new, and had a very great 
and benign influence upon the Christian world. 

In England, there was the petition of rights, and the 
action upon it, and the abolition of the Star-Chamber 
and High-Commission Courts, in the time of Charles I. ; 
the passage of the Habeas Corpus Act, in the time of 
Charles II. ; the Bill of Rights and the Toleration Act in 



174 DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS OF LAW. 

the time of William and Mary ; the Catholic Emancipa- 
tion Bill in 1829 ; the Reform Bill in 1832 ; and numer- 
ous other bills for the amelioration of the criminal laws, 
and the improvement of the civil laws of the United 
Kingdom. 

The Star-Chamber and High-Commission Courts were 
organized to act in secret, in accordance with the doc- 
trines of imperial despotism and the Popish Inquisition — 
in violation of the principles of Magna Charta, and of 
the ancient mode of trial by jury. Those engines of des- 
potism were abolished by the Long-Parliament in 1641 ; 
and the principle of the common law was then firmly 
established — that no one should be punished for a crimi- 
nal offence, except on the conviction of a jury of his 
country, after a public trial. 

All the assemblies and courts, tribunals and councils 
ever instituted by man, whether civil or ecclesiastical, 
legislative, executive or judicial, are liable to be governed 
by prejudice or favoritism — by selfishness and corrup- 
tion — and by partisan or sectarian ambition and error of 
opinion. Hence the importance of the open and public 
administration of justice — according to known laws — to 
subject the conduct of both courts and juries to the in- 
fluence of public opinion and the press. Henry Hall am 
treats this as one of the principal guarantees of civil lib- 
erty. It is equally necessary that legislatures and all 
councils and tribunals should act under the same influ- 
ences. The laws and usages of England in this partic- 
ular, have furnished a salutary example to the civilized 
world, which has been useful in extending the principles 
of civil liberty. 

In France, great progress has been made in law and 
government ; including the making of the edict of Nantes 
in 1598 ; the sweeping away of the old feudal and ecclesi- 
astical laws and usages by the revolution ; the formation 
of the Code Napoleon ; and the enactment of many new 
laws, during the present century and the last ten years 
of the Eighteenth century — which are mostly great im- 
provements upon the old laws of that country. The 
Code Napoleon has been a great fountain and storehouse 
of law and legal principles, from which every country of 



DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS OF LAW. 1 75 

the civilized world has borrowed more or less ; and great 
improvement has been made in matters of government 
and jurisprudence during the present century, in every 
country in Europe and America. 

In the United States, we have had the revolutionary 
constitutions and bills of rights ; the laws which swept 
away ecclesiastical powers and established civil and 
religious liberty ; laws which abolished entails and the 
legal right of primogeniture ; and more recently, many 
general revisions of the statutes of States, and many 
improvements of the laws thereof — including, in several 
of the States, the passage of laws to secure to married 
women the control of their own property ; though I believe 
none of the States have yet secured to married women 
the control of their own industry and earnings. 

Under the influence of Christianity, serfdom mostly 
disappeared in England and Western Europe, in the 
Thirteenth and Fourteenth centuries — by the voluntary 
emancipation of the serfs, by their masters. The Decla- 
ration of Independence, and the ordinance of 1787 — for 
the government of the territory of the United States 
north-west of the Ohio river, constituted the inceptive 
steps to the abolition of slavery in our country ; and the 
Missouri compromise — prohibiting slavery north of the 
compromise line, limited its extension. 

Chattel slavery was abolished in Hayti, early in the 
present century ; in Mexico and other Spanish American 
republics soon afterwards ; in the British West India 
islands about thirty years since ; and it has been recently 
abolished in our Southern States, by the adoption of the 
thirteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United 
States. 

Serfdom in Russia, has been recently abolished by the 
Emperor ; and the Emperor of Brazil, in April last (1 867), 
made a decree, providing for the gradual abolition of sla- 
very in that country. The day is probably not far dis- 
tant, when chattel slavery and serfdom will cease, in every 
country of the Christian world. Verily, this is an age of 
progress ; and yet there is no improvement in Mahome- 
tan countries. * 



CHAPTER XXV. 

On the differences in the races of men and their 
causes j and on the influences of climate and 
education upon the physical constitution and 
nature, and upon the mental and moral charac- 
ter of man. 

Sec. i. Races of men. 

All mankind have the same general organization and 
nature, with the exception of the distinctions of sex. All 
other exceptions to this general statement, are abnormal 
cases, or instances of defective organization, which serve 
to prove the truth of the rule. And yet the differences 
in the color of the skin, in the hair, in the forms and 
sizes of the limbs and organs of the body, in the relative 
sizes of the several organs of the brain, and in the intel- 
lectual capacity and character of the people of different 
climates and countries, are so great and striking, as to 
induce many learned men to believe that they are not 
only different races, but different species of beings ; and 
could not have had a common origin. 

Many writers upon the subject divide the human fam- 
ily into five different races ; but some subdivide them 
into more than thirty races or varieties. They are usu- 
ally divided into only five : first, the Caucasian race — 
including the inhabitants of nearly all Western Asia, and 
the Europeans and their descendants ; second, the Mon- 
golians of Central Asia and China ; thirdly, the Malays, 
— occupying South-Eastern Asia and the neighboring 
islands ; fourthly, the Negroes of Africa and their de- 
scendants ; and lastly, the aborigines of America. But 
that classification does not properly include the Hindoos, 
the Arabs, the Egyptians, nor the inhabitants of any of 
the countries of Africa north of the tropic ; all of whom 
are different from each of the five races enumerated, 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 1 77 

There is less difference between the American Indians 
north of the thirty-eighth degree of latitude and the Mon- 
golians, than there is between the former and the Amer- 
ican aborigines of the torrid zone. The truth is, there 
is no dividing line between the Negroes and the Malays — 
none between the Malays and the Mongolians — and none 
between the Mongolians or Tartar races and the Caucas- 
ians and Europeans ; though there are wide differences 
between the populations of different countries, assigned 
to the Caucasian race. 

As different colors side by side may be so blended and 
shaded into each other, that you cannot properly say that 
the one ends and the other begins at any particular line 
— so the different races run into each other, and are 
blended together, forming slightly different varieties in 
neighboring countries of different latitudes — as the cli- 
mate of the torrid zone runs into the bordering hot cli- 
mates ; the latter gradually blend with the warm climate 
of the adjoining countries ; the warm climates gradually 
blend with the temperate, and the latter with the cold 
climates of the earth. The climate varies every degree 
which you ascend from the tropics to the Arctic circles. 
There is a wide difference between the character of the 
people of the north of France and those of the south — 
and even between those of the northern highlands and 
the southern lowlands of Scotland. 

As you can draw no precise dividing line between cli- 
mates in many instances — so none can be drawn between 
the different races of men ; and yet the differences be- 
tween the negro and the Germanic races are great and 
clearly marked. 

Sec. 2. Causes of the different races. 

Such marked differences in the forms and features, in 
the constitutions and nature, and in the capacity and 
character of men of different races, cannot have been 
produced without adequate causes. There have been 
many speculations and several theories in relation to the 
causes of the difference of race among men. 

One theory is that the Supreme Being originally ere- 



178 DIFFERENCES IN THE* RACES OF MEN. 

ated several different races or types of men, in order to 
adapt the several types to the different climates of the 
earth ; as he created different quadrupeds and other ani- 
mals for different climates, and gave to each species con- 
stitutions and organs adapted to the climate and condi- 
tion in which they were to live and procure the means 
of subsistence. Though there is nothing in that theory 
which seems unreasonable, yet it is not in accordance 
with the common interpretation of the Scriptures, nor with 
the commonly received opinions of the Christian world. 
Nor does it seem consistent with the history of man. 

A second theory has been formed to obviate the ob- 
jections made by Biblical expositors and the Christian 
world to the first. This theory assumes that at some 
period posterior to the flood, the differences in the human 
races were created by the special interposition of Divine 
Providence ; that several different types or races of men 
were then created and made unchangeable and perma- 
nent — so that neither time, climate nor circumstances 
have produced any substantial change in them since. 
This theory is founded on a hypothesis, which seems to 
have neither reason nor science, history nor tradition to 
support it. At least such is the view which I take of it. 

The third theory is, that the constitution of man is 
flexible and changeable to a much greater extent than 
that of any other animal ; and that his physical organs 
and faculties are gradually developed and changed by 
climate and food, exercise and circumstances, and adapted 
to the climate and condition in which he is placed. 

A fourth theory is, that intermarriages and mixtures 
between different peoples and races — coming from differ- 
ent climates and countries, produce new varieties and 
races of men. 

It is undoubtedly true that the mixture of the blood 
of two different races produces a new variety — having 
constitutions differing from either — with the peculiarities 
of both modified and nicely blended. This theory assigns 
one of the principal causes of the multiplication of new 
varieties and races ; but it presupposes that there were 
differences of race prior to the operation of the cause 
referred to ; and hence it cannot be regarded as a cause 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 1 79 

of the differences which existed from two thousand to 
four thousand years since, between the negroes of tropical 
Africa and the peoples of Southern, Central, and Western 
Europe. 

The monuments of Egypt show that the features of 
the Ethiopean negroes have undergone no change dur- 
ing a period of nearly four thousand years. All the 
evidence we have — historical and ethnological, pictorial 
and scientific — tends to show that the differences in the 
features and the form of the skull, between the peoples of 
tropical Africa and those of temperate climates in Eu- 
rope and Asia, were the same three thousand years ago, 
that they are now. Hence we may regard the types and 
peculiarities of the different races so firmly fixed, that 
they never undergo any change in the same climate, ex- 
cept what is produced by education, increase of industry, 
and the mixture of races. 

The second theory stated is based upon assumptions 
only. Its advocates affirm that the negro race is not 
only inferior to the white races — but that the character- 
istics of both are permanent and unchangeable, and can- 
not be affected by climate, education, nor any condition 
in which they may be placed — operating during any pe- 
riod of. time, however long. That theory was formed 
by a class of men who believe that the negro was designed 
by the Creator for a slave — that slavery is his normal and 
proper condition — that he enjoys the highest degree of 
happiness of which he is capable, while in a state of sla- 
very — and that he is not, and never can be, fitted for 
self-control and self-government. 

That theory has never commanded the assent of many 
minds — except those of slaveholders, and persons living 
in slaveholding communities. The assumption that the 
types of men are fixed, and absolutely unchangeable, is 
not in accordance with the history of mankind ; and yet 
changes in the characteristics of races are so slow as to 
be almost imperceptible — except by comparing distant 
generations of people, that have migrated or been trans- 
ported from one climate to another. That the complex- 
ion, the features, and the constitution of" the present 
generation of negroes in the United States have been 



l80 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

considerably changed by the mild climate of our country, 
and regular industry, is a matter of fact that is beyond 
all doubt ; and that the same circumstances operating in 
connection with the greater exercise of their mental fac- 
ulties in this country than in Africa, have contributed to 
develop some of the organs of their brains more, and 
to influence their intellectual faculties, is equally certain. 
But long periods of time under favorable circumstances 
are required to effect much changes. 

Some of the advocates of that theory also affirm that 
mongrel races soon die out ; and that new races or vari- 
eties among men cannot be produced by a mixture of 
blood. Such a conclusion is not consistent with the his- 
tory and present condition of the inhabitants of America 
— many millions of whom belong to the mixed races. In 
Mexico, Central America, Venezuela, Porto Rico, and 
several of the West India islands, about one-fourth of 
the population belong to the mixed races. In the other 
countries of South America, the mixed races comprise 
from eight to twelve per cent, of the whole population. 
The most of the inhabitants of mixed blood are part 
white and part Indian — called mestizoes ; some of them 
are mulattoes, and a few are part Indian and part Negro — 
called zamboes. The census of the United States of 
1850 gives the number of mulattoes at 405,757, and the 
census of i860 shows that they had increased in ten 
years, to 588,352, — comprising at the latter period, more 
than thirteen per cent, of the whole colored population 
of the United States. The mixed races in every country 
upon the continent of America, are increasing in num- 
bers ; and there is no indication of any decrease in any 
race of people, except the wandering Indians, who live 
by hunting and fishing. 

The second theory does not seem consistent with the 
established truths of science, with human reason, nor 
with the facts of history. On the contrary, the third and 
fourth theories stated seem to be in harmony with sci- 
ence and reason — with natural history and the history 
and present condition of mankind — with the experiments 
that have been made in mixing the breeds of animals, 
and in transplanting fruits and vegetables, plants and 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. l8l 

grains, from hot and warm to cool climates, and vice 
versa. 

God works mostly by general laws and material agen- 
cies ; and his general Providences are evolved through 
the action, growths, and developments springing from 
the normal operation of the properties with which he 
has endowed the material elements of the Universe. 

It may be stated as a general law of the living princi- 
ple, which applies to both the animal and vegetable 
economy, that every organ is increased in size and power 
to a certain extent by proper food and exercise — and that 
its growth tends to adapt it to the circumstances in which 
it is placed, and to the offices which it is required to per- 
form. Hence climate and circumstances, exercise and 
the use of particular kinds of food, continued in opera- 
tion for long periods of time — tend to change the relative 
size and structure of many of the organs of the human 
system (and particularly those of the brain), and to pro- 
duce the peculiarities of race. That law, and the law of 
transmission, by which the germs of animal and vegeta- 
ble life tend to reproduce the same stock and peculiarities 
from which they originated, lie at the foundation of the 
whole animal and vegetable economy, and constitute the 
chief corner-stone of the theory, known as the develop- 
ment system ; which is correct to a limited extent. 

We have a large class of people in our country, and in 
Europe also, so wedded to the theory of the natural men- 
tal equality of all the races of men, that while they see 
and acknowledge that there are wide differences between 
races, and perceive and admit some of the tendencies and 
characteristics of the third theory named, they seem blind 
to others. While they acknowledge the effect of climate 
and food, exercise and pursuits, on the physical constitu- 
tion of man, they practically deny the influence of all 
such causes upon the brain, and upon his mental and 
moral constitution and nature. They ignore an estab- 
lished truth of phrenology — that the mind and its char- 
acteristics, and the moral character also, depend largely 
upon the size and organization of the different organs of 
the brain, and they attribute to education and religion all 



1 82 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

the differences in the intellect, and in the moral character 
of the different races of men. 

Sec 3. Causes of the Complexion of the Colored Races. 

The differences of complexion of the different races of 
men can be accounted for only by attributing them to 
the effect of climate and food, habits and modes of living. 

The influence of the sun tends to give color, and to 
make brown or green, every living thing upon which its 
rays fall. It gives color to the leaves and bark of plants and 
trees, and tans and browns the skin of all persons who 
are much exposed to its rays. Hot and bilious climates 
produce bilious temperaments and a black or dark-brown 
skin, like the natives of tropical Africa. Warm climates 
tend to produce a yellowish, or light-brown skin, similar 
to that of our mulattoes. 

Painting the skin, exposure to winds and weather, sub- 
sisting principally on animal food, drinking wine or cof- 
fee freely, dwelling in smoky huts, and living in dirt and 
filth — without bathing or washing very frequently, and 
without much effort at cleanliness, all tend to produce 
dark and swarthy complexions. Smoke soon colors every 
thing it touches ; and it is an indisputable fact, that all 
the savages and barbarians of cold climates, as well as 
those of hot and warm ones, have swarthy or brown 
complexions — which can be accounted for only by attrib- 
uting it to dwelling in smoky huts without chimneys, and 
living in dirt and filth, mostly on animal food. Living in 
dirt, often besmeared with the grease of animal food, 
without frequent bathing, washing, or much regard to 
cleanliness, must of itself tend to stain and discolor the 
coatings of the skin, and to produce a dark complexion. 
The effects of all these causes become fixed in the coats 
of the skin, and are transmitted from one generation to 
another. 

The Laplander, residing in the frigid zone, is as dark 
as the North American Indian living in a warm or tem- 
perate climate ; and it is impossible to account for the 
complexion of either, unless we attribute it to the com- 
bined influence of smoky huts, the want of cleanliness, 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 1 83 

and the excessive use of animal food. On the contrary, 
the inhabitants of temperate and cold climates in Europe 
and America, that occupy dwellings with good chimneys 
(whereby they avoid smoke), and live mostly on vegetable 
food, have light and good complexions. 

Sec. 4. Effect of Climate on the Animal and Vegetable 
Kingdoms. 

Everything that has life (except man) is confined to 
a comparatively narrow range of climate. Man alone 
inhabits all climates and countries, and all latitudes as 
far north and south from the equator as the earth can 
furnish sufficient food for his subsistence. 

Grains and grasses, fruits and vegetables, roots, plants 
and shrubs, as well as trees, all grow spontaneously only 
in certain climates, soils and situations, best adapted to 
their nature. Though they may be transplanted and cul- 
tivated under favorable circumstances in climates varying 
considerably from those that produce them spontane- 
ously ; yet nothing can be cultivated successfully and 
advantageously, except in a climate adapted to some ex- 
tent to its constitution and nature. It is only by reason 
of the plastic powers of nature, of its power and capacity 
to modify to a limited extent the structure and constitu- 
tion of the products which grow upon the surface of the 
earth, in order to adapt them to somewhat different de- 
grees of heat and moisture, and to a season longer or 
shorter, that anything can be cultivated successfully, 
except in one unvarying climate — the climate in which it 
is produced spontaneously. 

Plant South Carolina corn in the valley of the St. Law- 
rence, and it will grow and produce a large stalk in a good 
soil ; but will not ripen so as to produce seed that will 
grow the following year. But plant it the first year one 
or two degrees farther north, and the second year plant 
its seed another degree or two still farther north, and so 
on, and at the end of ten or fifteen years it may have its 
nature so changed by degrees, as to become acclimated 
to some extent, and so far adapted to the climate of Mon- 
treal, that it will ripen at the latter place in favorable sea- 



1 84 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

sons. Indian corn can never however be cultivated to 
much extent in so high a latitude as Montreal, and never 
has been cultivated in Great Britain, except in gardens, 
and to eat green. Very few grains, grasses, vegetables, 
plants or trees can be cultivated in as great a range of 
latitude and variety of climate, as Indian corn. 

Animals are as much influenced by heat and cold as 
vegetables are, and every species except man is confined 
to a very limited variety of climate. The Deity has estab- 
lished a tendency in the living principle, which he planted 
in the animal as well as the vegetable creation, to adapt 
itself to the climate, condition and circumstances, in 
which it is situated. This is the great physical law of 
the Universe, without which neither animals nor vegeta- 
bles could be successfully transplanted from one climate 
t$ another, and every species would be confined to one 
climate, and could never have been multiplied in any 
other. This quality of adaptation to a new and different 
climate is so limited, that no animal of the torrid zone 
can live long and multiply above the fortieth degree of 
latitude, and no species of animal belonging above the 
fortieth degree of latitude can live and continue its spe- 
cies very long in the torrid zone. 

Why is it that man alone is able to inhabit all countries 
and all climates ? Perhaps only three reasons can be 
assigned for this remarkable fact : First — owing to the 
plastic powers of nature, the very texture of man's phys- 
ical organs is gradually changed by the influence of 
heat or cold, as the one or the other predominates, so 
that his constitution becomes to some extent adapted to 
the climate in which he lives. 

Secondly, by means of his reasoning faculties, and the 
use of his hands, which are adapted to industry, he can 
provide himself with a dwelling or shelter, and clothing, 
to protect him from the severity and changes of the 
weather ; and in cold countries he can supply himself 
with fuel and fire, to protect himself from the cold. 

And thirdly, by observation, experience, and the use of 
his reasoning faculties, he has made many discoveries in 
the healing art in almost every country, and thereby 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 185 

aided in preserving the race from destruction in un- 
healthy climates. 

Sec 5. Direct Effects of Heat and Cold on Man. 

Heat is a stimulant and a laxative ; cold a tonic. Heat 
tends to relax the muscles, the muscular fibres of the 
nerves, and muscular coats of the skin, and to make their 
texture loose, soft, and supple. It therefore tends to in- 
crease the flexibility, irritability, and contractility of the 
muscles, and to increase also the sensitiveness, delicacy, 
and excitability of the nervous system ; and contributes 
to activity and quick action. When in excess it stimu- 
lates too highly, makes the blood circulate too rapidly, 
tends to relax the muscles too much, to lessen the strength 
and the powers of endurance, and to exhaust the system ; 
and if long continued, produces debility, fever, and other 
diseases. 

Cold tends to contract the fibres of the muscles and 
the muscular coats of the nerves and skin, and to render 
them compact, hard, rigid, tough, and strong. It tends 
also to contract the pores of the skin, and all the organs 
of secretion, to diminish the sensibility, excitability, irri- 
tability, and contractility of the fibres of the muscles 
and nerves, and tends to render their action and all their 
movements slower, but stronger, and more regular. 

Cold operates firstly and directly on the skin, contracts 
its fibres, diminishes and sometimes entirely closes its 
pores, contracts the extremities of the nerves, and con- 
tracts also the capillary vessels lying near the skin. Sen- 
sibility depends on the sensory fibres with which every 
part of the human body is supplied, and on the activity 
of the capillary circulation. As cold contracts the pores 
of the skin, the capillary vessels and also the extremities 
of the nerves, and lessens their activity and tends to 
harden the skin and its sensory fibres — it tends also to 
diminish sensibility and the power of sensation, by dimin- 
ishing the activity of the organs on which they depend. 

Heat tends to relax the fibres of the skin, to enlarge 
the capillary vessels, the pores of the skin and the sen- 
sory fibres in it, and to render the whole soft and pliable 



1 86 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

— whereby their sensibility and activity are increased, 
and the acuteness of the senses is increased also ; which 
tends to increase the activity of the* perceptive faculties 
of the mind. Hot climates thus tend to increase the 
sensibilities of the people ; to render their feelings quick 
and changeable, and their minds restless and impulsive — 
unable to dwell long upon any one point or subject, for 
the reason that the attention is too often diverted and 
distracted by fresh objects. 

The excessive heat of the torrid zone tends to inten- 
sify the passions, and also the propensities for amusement 
and social pleasures, to render the senses quick, and to 
make the people passionate, impulsive and imaginative ; — 
and adapts them to quick and violent exertion for short 
periods of time, when under the influence of passion or 
strong motives. But inasmuch as it relaxes the muscles, 
exercise soon produces lassitude and exhaustion, and 
renders them feeble, languid, and disinclined to any exer- 
tion whatever, either physical or mental. In the absence 
of passion and excitement, excessive heat always tends 
to produce languor, indolence, feebleness of will, fickleness 
of mind, vacillation and irregularity of conduct, insta- 
bility of character, and aversion to regular industry or 
business. The heat stimulates the organs of sense to 
an inordinate degree, developes the perceptive faculties 
and the imagination very fully, and renders them so active, 
that under the influence of the appetites and passions, 
they become the predominant faculties of the mind. 
Being unfavorable to continued attention and close study, 
it is inconsistent with such a degree of exercise of the 
organs of the brain on which the attention, the judg- 
ment, and the reasoning faculties depend, as is necessary 
to the full development of those organs and faculties. 

On the contrary, cold tends to modify the passions, to 
render them less violent, but more regular, and subject 
to the control of the intellect ; — to produce firmness of 
mind, strength of will, self control, power of attention, 
energy and stability of character, adaptation to regular 
and continuous industry, perseverance and uniformity of 
conduct. A cold or cool climate is favorable to the exer- 
cise of those faculties of the mind which fit men for long- 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 1 87 

continued attention, close investigation, accurate analysis, 
and long courses of reasoning. Such a climate therefore 
tends to develop and increase in size and activity those 
portions and organs of the brain on which the attention, 
the judgment, the reflecting and the reasoning faculties 
depend. 

When aided by the schools and high culture, warm 
climates are favorable to the fine arts, to music, poetry, 
and eloquence, which depend mostly on the perceptive 
and imitative faculties, the imagination, and memory ; 
but they are unfavorable to the natural and mechanical 
sciences, as well as to the mechanic arts ; and the torrid 
zone is not favorable even to the fine arts. 



Sec 6. Indirect Effects of Heat and Cold on Man. 

Thus far I have discussed only the direct and primary 
effects of heat and cold on the fibres of the muscles and 
muscular tissues ; and have shown that their direct ten- 
dency is to change the very texture of all the organs of 
the human system : that cold tends to make them com- 
pact, hard, rigid, tough, firm, and strong ; and that heat 
tends to relax them and make them loose, soft, supple, 
and weak. It is not simply the color of the skin and 
hair that is affected by the climate ; but it is their tex- 
ture also, as well as the texture and size of the liver, and 
other glands and organs of the human system ; all of 
which are changed in their structure, size, and power, by 
climate. 

The indirect and secondary effects of climate are of a 
similar character — though not so quickly developed, nor 
so strongly marked. Both the direct and indirect influ- 
ences of climate are to change the constitution and nature 
of man. The direct and primary effects are, to change 
the texture of all the organs of the animal economy and 
of the human frame ; while their indirect and secondary 
effects, by reason of exercise of the muscles and of the 
mind and its organs, are to change the relative size and 
power of the several parts and organs of the brain, as 
well as the muscles and organs of the animal economy. 

The immaterial mind of man cannot act in and of 



1 88 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

itself, independent of material organs. The mind is 
mysteriously blended with the medullary substance of 
the brain and nerves, which constitute its physical organs, 
and by means of which it acts. All parts of the brain 
are not exercised at once. The perceptive faculties are 
more immediately connected with the organs of sense, 
and their capacity upon any particular subject arises as 
much from the cultivation and degree of perfection of 
the sense or senses upon which they depend, as from the 
cultivation of the mind. Anatomists and physiologists, 
as well as phrenologists, very generally agree in locating 
the purely intellectual faculties — including the faculty 
of reflecting, comparing, analyzing, and deducing conclu- 
sions — in the frontal and central portions of the brain ; 
and that a large and prominent forehead indicates a high 
order of reasoning powers ; while a low, narrow, and re- 
treating forehead indicates inferior intellectual faculties. 

The mind is developed by storing it with a knowledge 
of things, with ideas and words as the representatives of 
things, and with truths and principles, rules and maxims, 
showing the relations of things, and of man to the mate- 
rial world. The frequent exercise of the mind, casting 
about for subjects and materials with which to occupy it, 
and the whole process of thinking, not only suggests 
ideas and produces currents of thought, and aids in de- 
veloping the mind in a purely intellectual sense, but it 
exercises also portions of the brain as material organs, 
increases the circulation of blood in the parts exercised, 
and tends to develop them as physical organs, and to 
increase them in size, activity, and power. Hence the 
volume and shape of the brain of a people determines, 
as a general rule, the degree of development, and the 
character of their intellect. 

Necessity has been aptly called the mother of inven- 
tion. It is also the parent of industry. Man reasons 
firstly in relation to his wants and the objects around him, 
and his principal efforts through life are to supply his 
wants ; firstly those that are natural, and secondly those 
that are artificial. In hot climates, he has but few natu- 
ral wants, which are generally supplied with but little 
labor and effort ; and hence he has very little incentive 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 1 89 

to continuous industry, and generally falls into habits of 
indolence and frivolous amusement. 

On the contrary, cold climates increase man's wants 
more than tenfold ; and often overwhelm him with wants 
beyond his power to supply. The tendency of such cli- 
mates is to stimulate him to great efforts to supply his 
wants — to stimulate his mind to active thoughts, to direct 
his efforts in search of subsistence and protection from 
the elements, and to find out and invent tools and instru- 
ments, means and methods, to render his industry effective 
and productive. Cold climates thus tend to increase the 
exercise of both body and mind- — to call into exercise all 
the intellectual faculties ; to exercise the reasoning pow- 
ers, the judgment, and the understanding ; and to de- 
velop the inventive faculties. Such exercise serves to 
develop and increase in size and activity those organs 
in the frontal and central portions of the brain in which 
those faculties of the mind are located. The formation, 
relative size, and texture of the several parts and organs 
of the brain, as well as of the body, are transmitted from 
parent to child, from one generation to another ; so that 
an industrious people, who educate their children, con- 
tinue to improve in the aggregate, from generation to 
generation, until the utmost limit of human improvement 
is attained* 

It is far otherwise with the people of the torrid zone. 
Having few wants, which are easily supplied, without 
much exercise of mind or effort of body, they have very 
little occasion to exercise their reasoning faculties or their 
powers of invention — and the result is, that their powers 
of analysis and investigation, their reasoning and invent- 
ive faculties, their capacity to discover new truths in sci- 
ence, and all the higher faculties of the human intellect, 
remain dormant and undeveloped ; and the portions of 
the brain which constitute the organs of those facul- 
ties, are small — very diminutive indeed, when compared 
with the same organs of the European races. This 
is seen in the comparatively low, narrow, and retreating 
foreheads of all the colored races, and of all the inhab- 
itants of the torrid zone. It is not confined to negro 
slaves, nor to the negro race ; though it does not apply 



"1 90 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

to persons born in the torrid zone, whose immediate an- 
cestors were from Europe. 

The formation of the brain and of the whole constitu- 
tion and character of the negro race, has been produced 
by the influence of the excessive heat of western and 
central Africa upon more than an hundred generations 
of their ancestors ; and the inactive and comparatively- 
torpid state of the mind in slavery, has not been favora- 
ble to the mental development of the descendants of 
those brought to America. Nor is the very warm and 
bilious climate of the rice, sugar, and cotton regions of 
the slave States, very well calculated to improve the race, 
under the most favorable circumstances that could pos- 
sibly exist there. 

Sec 7. Intellectual Capacity and Characteristics of the 
People of Hot Climates. 

The people of the torrid zone, including the colored 
races of all hot climates, generally have much imagina- 
tion and fancy, and often have active and sprightly minds, 
taste for the fine arts, and considerable imitative talent. 
They are generally cheerful and happy, and passionately 
fond of society and amusements. Their perceptive fac- 
ulties are often good ; but they are generally deficient in 
mental control ; in the power of long-continued atten- 
tion ; in capacity to analyze complicated matters, and to 
reason well upon difficult questions ; in judgment, and in 
originality and depth of thought ; in constructive talent 
and the powers of invention ; in clearness and compre- 
hensiveness of understanding ; and also in system and 
organizing talent ; as well as in industry and stability of 
character. The organs of the brain upon which those 
faculties depend are small, and imperfectly developed. 

Letters were invented in a temperate climate ; lan- 
guages were reduced to order and rule, and grammars 
constructed, inventions made in the useful arts, and dis- 
coveries made in natural science, in many countries in 
the old world, lying between the 30th and the 60th de- 
grees of latitude ; and laws and systems of government, 
the fine arts and commerce, grew up, as it were sponta- 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 191 

neously, in Tyre, and many countries of western Asia, 
and in Greece, Italy, and Carthage. But no inventions 
have ever been made, and no original truths in science, 
law, government, or the useful arts, have been discovered 
and developed in the torrid zone. Why is it so ? Such 
things have not occurred without cause. Differences so 
remarkable between nations in cold and those in hot cli- 
mates, have not been produced accidentally. There must 
have been causes for them, which can be found only in 
the influences of heat and cold. 

Why is it that concubinage and polygamy have ever 
been so common in hot climates, and almost unknown in 
all countries and all states of civilization in cold ones ? 
Why are the people of cold climates so generally chaste 
and industrious ; while those of hot climates are so gen- 
erally indolent and unchaste ? Why is there from ten 
to twenty times as much licentiousness among free peo- 
ple in hot climates as in cold ? Why are the people of 
cold climates so much more provident, economical, frugal, 
and inclined to accumulate for the future, than those liv- 
ing in hot countries ? Can any reason be assigned for 
those differences, except the climate and its influence 
upon the physical wants, the constitution, the appetites 
and passions, and upon the mental and moral character 
of man ? 

Why is it that systems of law and jurisprudence, free 
institutions, learning, and popular forms of government, 
have grown up spontaneously in many countries in Eu- 
rope and western Asia, in temperate and cold climates ; 
while rude customs, general ignorance and despotic insti- 
tutions, have always prevailed, everywhere in the torrid 
zone ? 

Why have all the inventions in the mechanic arts, and 
all the discoveries in the natural sciences and in astron- 
omy been made in temperate and cold climates, and not 
one in the torrid zone, or even below the 30th degree of 
latitude ? Why have the people of temperate and cold 
climates in many countries gradually emerged from bar- 
barism, and improved their physical condition, modes of 
government and jurisprudence, and improved also in the 
arts and sciences, while those of the torrid zone have 



192 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

remained sunk in the lowest states of barbarism ; except 
the cases of colonists from Europe, who have carried 
with them the learning, the arts and sciences, laws and 
institutions of their native country ? By recognizing the 
fact, that climate changes the constitution and nature, 
the intellect and character of man, it is easy to account 
for these differences, and, at first view strange and anom- 
alous facts- — but it is impossible to account for them upon 
any other theory. 

The valley of the Nile is one of the richest, and in 
many respects most favored countries upon the earth ; 
and yet its government and institutions have been des- 
potic in all ages of the world, even when liberal institu- 
tions were growing up spontaneously in Tyre, Carthage, 
Greece and Rome. There is reason to believe that the 
arts of Lower Egypt originated in and were borrowed 
from Assyria, Persia, and other countries of Asia lying 
in higher latitudes than Egypt ; and that the arts of 
Upper Egypt to which ancient Thebes on the Nile owed 
its fame, were borrowed from the same sources : and yet 
the arts of ancient Egypt were mostly confined to a 
massive and clumsy architecture, and to sculpture and 
painting. 

All these historical facts lead to the conclusion, that 
the African races and all the inhabitants of the torrid 
zone, by reason of the influence of excessive heat oper- 
ating upon them and many generations of their ances- 
tors, are inferior to the European races in the higher fac- 
ulties of the intellect, which fit man for self government, 
and for the exercise of political powers and privileges. 
The history of Mexico, Central America, and the South 
American Republics, indicate that a Republican form of 
government like that of the United States, cannot be 
long maintained in the torrid zone. 

Sec 8. Effect of Climate upon the Intellects of the 
White People of the Southern States. 

Climatic influences are such in the United States, that 
it is much more difficult to maintain democratic institu- 
tions, with universal suffrage and frequent elections, in 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 1 93 

South Carolina, Georgia and the Gulf States, than it is 
north of the fortieth degree^ of latitude. In fact, climate 
has so far changed the character of the white population 
south of the thirty-fifth degree of latitude, that, in point 
of constitution and character, they occupy in many re- 
spects a position intermediate between the inhabitants 
of the torrid zone and those of the Northern free States, 
and the north of Europe. 

The constitution, the brain and the intellectual facul- 
ties of the people of the cotton States, of European de- 
scent, have been so much affected by the influence of a 
very warm climate upon themselves and their ancestors 
during several generations, that when compared with the 
people of the Northern States, the educated classes of 
them are superior in imagination and fancy, and in quick- 
ness and sprightliness of mind ; but inferior in practical 
ability, in strength of mind, and in inventive talent, as 
well as in self-control, powers of endurance and industry. 
Their sensibilities are often acute ; their feelings quick 
but changeable ; and their minds quick, but restless and 
impulsive. They have more talent for talking and ora- 
tory than for thinking, or for practical business ; and 
more talents for politics and military affairs, than for 
sound statesmanship. Their capacity depends more on 
sprightliness of mind than on strength of intellect ; more 
on facility of illustration than on depth of thought ; and 
more on force of expression than on clearness of reason- 
ing. Though they have much greater reasoning powers 
and strength of mind than the people of the torrid zone, 
yet they have some of the same peculiarities and defects. 

A large portion of the white inhabitants of the South- 
ern slave States are illiterate, passionate, and impulsive ; 
deficient in self-control, and in many of the higher quali- 
ties which fit man for self-government ; though they are 
greatly superior to the masses of the colored population. 

These remarks apply more generally to the white pop- 
ulation born and bred below the thirty-third degree of 
latitude, than they do to the people of the States lying 
north of the thirty-fifth parallel of latitude. 

9 



194 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

Sec. 9. Characteristics of the Negro Race. 

The senses of the negroes and of all the peoples of the 
torrid zone, are generally quicker and more acute than 
those of peoples of cold climates, and their sensibility is 
also much greater. The perceptive faculties depend 
mostly on the senses ; and those of the negro races are 
equal, perhaps, within the limited range of their knowl- 
edge, to those of any people upon the earth. They are 
also very generally endowed with a fine imagination, and 
with as much memory as any uneducated and ignorant 
race of people. But their reasoning faculties are weak 
and defective ; their understandings are contracted and 
imperfect, and very slow and dull — when applied to any- 
thing of a complicated character ; their inventive faculties 
appear to be entirely undeveloped ; and they seem inca- 
pable of anything like philosophical reasoning or gener- 
alization. Their perceptive faculties and their powers 
of memory and imagination, are their only intellectual 
faculties which are much developed. 

The perceptive faculties and the memory of children 
of every race, are developed first ; the reasoning faculties 
are developed more slowly, and at a later period in life. 
The perceptive faculties of negro children being gener- 
ally good, they are often precocious, appear bright and 
smart, and excite high expectations in the minds of their 
teachers ; but they come to maturity very early, and 
seldom improve much after they are fifteen years of age. 
It is impossible to give such persons a very extended 
and complete education. 

The characteristics and peculiarities of the African 
races and their descendants in America, depend mostly 
on their physical and mental constitution, and compara- 
tively little on their* education ; and hence there is but 
little difference between the bond and the free, so far as 
regards moral character or mental power. 

They are fond of society, dislike to be alone, have no 
inclination for, nor adaptation to, sober thought, reflec- 
tion, abstract reasoning, or the investigation and analysis 
of complicated subjects and difficult questions — which 
require solitude, concentration of thought, and long-con- 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 1 95 

tinued application. Hence they dislike and dread soli- 
tude, are discontented, unhappy, and restless when alone ; 
and have a strong inclination to visit, to congregate 
together, to talk and laugh, sing, play on musical in- 
struments, dance, frolic, and enjoy themselves in social 
hilarity. 

They never experiment — either in mechanics, in the 
cultivation of the soil, in the rearing of animals, or in 
matters of natural science. They are governed by their 
immediate wants, appetites, and impulses, and never seem 
to study the nature of things, nor the laws of cause and 
effect ; and hence they learn nothing by experiment and 
the modes of deductive and inductive reasoning, which 
have gradually elevated the populations of Europe, and 
the Americans of European descent, to their present high 
grades of civilization. Their perceptive faculties are good, 
and they learn mostly from observation and imitation, 
and very little from reasoning, didactive instruction, or 
from books. Such physical and mental characteristics 
have kept the people of the torrid zone stationary for 
thousands of years, and prevented any improvement or 
progress among them. 

Our colored people are essentially a social and gre- 
garious people. They have warm social sympathies and 
strong physical appetites ; but no strong mental pas- 
sions. They have very little avarice, but little ambition 
for dominion and power, or to be rich ; and are seldom 
governed by violent anger, or strong feelings of revenge. 
Avarice, ambition, and passion for revenge are mothers 
of the higher grades of crime. 

The colored people are seldom guilty of high crimes, 
except the crime of rape, to which they are particularly 
subject. They are rarely guilty of burglary, except of 
the lowest grade, to obtain provisions or something to 
satisfy their immediate wants. They are rarely, if ever, 
guilty of highway robbery, stealing from the person, 
pocket-picking, forgery, passing counterfeit money, ob- 
taining goods by false pretences, swindling, or associating 
together and forming plans to commit crimes of any 
grade. Their principal crime is petty stealing of provi- 
sions and small articles, to satisfy their wants. They sel- 



I96 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OE MEN. 

dom steal or commit any crime from motives of avarice — 
to accumulate for the future — but simply to supply their 
immediate wants and necessities. Hence they rarely 
steal any great amount, but are very frequently guilty of 
petty pilfering from day to day, and from week to week. 

These remarks apply more particularly to the full- 
blooded negro ; they apply much less generally to the 
colored people, who are half, three-fourths, or seven- 
eighths white — many of whom are educated, and have 
inherited from one or more white ancestors, a large share 
of talent, violent passions, and many vicious instincts — 
comprising some of the worst passions and propensities 
of the educated whites. While the mixed breeds are 
raised in the scale of intellect, their susceptibility and 
adaptation to the commission of the higher grades of 
crime, are also greatly increased ; and hence, in estimat- 
ing the character and fitness of our colored population 
for freedom, and the enjoyment of civil and political 
rights and privileges, and their probable future destiny, 
a proper distinction should be made between the mixed 
breeds and those of pure African descent. 

The history of the late rebellion and civil war shows 
the very great difference between the colored and the 
white races of our country, in several particulars. It 
proves that the colored races of African descent are not 
a vindictive nor revengeful people ; that they are not much 
imbued with the spirit of liberty and independence ; and 
that they are totally destitute of the revolutionary spirit, 
which exists among the populations of Europe and the 
white races of America. 

The anti-slavery people of the North very generally 
supposed and predicted, that the war and the President's 
emancipation proclamation, would arouse in the slaves a 
dormant desire for liberty and independence ; that they 
would excite in the slaves a revolutionary spirit — induce 
them to assert their freedom — to organize themselves into 
military companies and armies — to rise in insurrection in 
all parts of the slave States — to kill, slay, and assassinate 
their masters and their families, and all who should op- 
pose them — and to plunder, burn, and destroy property, 
and spread devastation and destruction throughout the 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. K)7 

country ; and that hundreds of slaves would avail them- 
selves of opportunities to assassinate their masters, and 
some members of their families, from motives of revenge. 
They very generally regarded slavery as an element of 
weakness at the South ; but the result shows that it was 
an element of strength, which sustained the South during 
the war. 

The result shows that the negro character was totally 
misunderstood at the North : that the slaves and free 
colored population are the meekest, best natured, most 
forgiving, inoffensive, and least vindictive and revengeful, 
of any people in America ; and that a majority of them 
cling to their homes, to their friends, and even to their 
masters and their families, with great tenacity. They 
are a very helpless, dependent and confiding people, so 
much so, that though they may desire freedom, they 
relied on God Almighty and Massa Lincoln to set them 
at liberty where they are, without any efforts on their 
part. They did not wish to leave their native South and 
come North, nor to emigrate to Africa, to become free. 
The slaves adhered to their old homes, their masters and 
their families, during the war, and labored under the su- 
perintendence of women and a few aged and infirm men, 
and carried on the plantations, with a patient industry 
and fidelity truly wonderful. They have shown them- 
selves the most submissive, quiet, harmless and inoffen- 
sive people upon the face of the earth. Who can now 
doubt, that they may be quiet, law-abiding citizens — 
though they may not be qualified for self-government, 
and the enjoyment of political rights and privileges ? 

The colored people of pure African blood have no 
rigidity of nerve or muscle, no rigidity or obstinacy of tem- 
perament, and no obstinacy of disposition except what 
naturally results from aversion to labor ; and the mixed 
races are similar in temperament and disposition. They 
are all, as a general rule, a light-hearted, cheerful, social, 
and happy people ; having generous impulses, kind feel- 
ings, obliging dispositions, and pliable tempers, — they 
prize highly all the comforts and blessings they have, enjoy 
life as it passes, and trouble themselves very little for the 
future. They are, in fact, the most amiable people in the 



I98 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

United States, the least influenced by selfishness and self- 
ish ambition, and perhaps murmur at their lot the least 

Sec. 10. Their fitness for Domestic Servants and Laborers. 

Their peculiar temperament and disposition render 
them the most agreeable and pleasant domestic servants 
that we have in our. country. 

Their senses being acute, their perceptive faculties 
good, and being fond of good eating, they seem to have 
a natural taste and aptitude for learning to cook, and very 
generally make good cooks ; much better than tb£ gen- 
erality of white persons of European descent. Such is 
the case with colored persons, both male and female. 
They also make good domestic servants of every kind, — 
good porters, barbers, coachmen, wagoners, draymen, 
and gardeners ; good soldiers, good mechanics for coarse 
and common work ; and good agricultural laborers for 
hot and warm climates. Though the hill country of 
South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama may be cultivated 
by white laborers, it may well be doubted if the rice lands 
of the coast, or the alluvial cotton and sugar lands along 
the coast or in the valleys of the rivers in those States, 
or in any of the Gulf States, can be cultivated to advan- 
tage by white laborers. The climate is too hot and un- 
healthy for persons of European descent, and their con- 
stitutions are not so well adapted to such climates, as 
those of colored persons are. Hence there is no reason 
to doubt, that the out-door labor of those regions will 
always be performed mostly by colored persons. Slavery 
has passed away, but it is not probable that the population 
of African descent will ever be less numerous in the 
Southern States than it is now, unless the white popula- 
tion should be guilty of practising towards them cruelties 
and enormities, which we have no reason to anticipate. 
The probability is, that the colored population will be- 
come, within two centuries, five or ten times as numerous 
as it is now, in the Northern as well as in the Southern 
States. 

The sociability, gregariousness, and passion for amuse- 
ment among colored people, tend to divert their minds 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 1 99 

from industry and business, and to foster indolence and 
heedlessness, — which constitute the great and principal 
drawbacks to the value of colored servants. They have 
also another weakness, which is often dwelt upon to their 
disadvantage. They are poor paymasters, and seem to 
feel very little moral obligation to pay their debts ; hence 
they should not be allowed to get into debt, and goods 
or other property should be very rarely sold to them on 
credit. In fact, retail credits should rarely be allowed to 
any people. It is not in accordance with good policy, or 
sound principles of political economy, to sell on credit 
to any class of people, goods or products for consumption. 
The consumer should not buy on credit, and consume a 
thing before he earns the money to pay for it. The only 
purchases on credit, consistent with sound principles of 
political economy, are the purchase of products to be 
manufactured for market, or purchases by merchants and 
dealers, to sell again. 

Our citizens should study the characteristics of the 
colored people, and learn their capacities and peculiari- 
ties, to guard against their weaknesses, and to treat and 
deal with them according to their merits. 

Sec. II. Evil tendencies and effects charged to Slavery \ 
partly chargeable to Climate. 

Our Northern people are in the habit of comparing the 
free and slave States, and to charge slavery with causing 
the differences — overlooking all other causes. The truth 
is, the differences have been produced by many causes. 

1. By difference in climate. 

2. By the existence at the South of so large numbers 
of an inferior race of African descent ; and lastly by 
slavery. 

The hot climate of the South has been a more potent 
cause than slavery. 

1st. It is said that slavery tends to degrade and dis- 
courage industry, and to encourage indolence among 
freemen. 

It cannot be denied that such is the tendency of sla- 
very ; and yet, a hot climate tends to produce indolence 



200 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

to a much greater degree. Heat relaxes the muscular 
system, produces lassitude, and has a direct and strong 
influence in producing indolence. A hot climate has an 
indirect influence also, in the same direction. By dimin- 
ishing man's wants, and removing the necessity of much 
labor and exertion to supply them, it lessens his motives 
to be industrious. 

2d. Slavery is charged with a strong tendency to licen- 
tiousness, and a disregard of the marriage tie, and of 
marital rights and duties. 

There is no reason to doubt that the degradation of 
the slave, and the power of the master and his sons and 
overseers, have a tendency to facilitate, invite, and en- 
courage licentiousness ; and to undermine and destroy 
moral purity. But a hot climate, by inflaming the pas- 
sions and making human beings more the creatures of 
passion and impulse, than they are in cold climates, has 
similar tendencies to a still greater degree than slavery 
has. There is more licentiousness in hot climates where 
slavery does not exist, than there ever was in any cold 
country, in the midst of slavery. Licentiousness is very 
common everywhere, in hot climates. In almost every 
part of the torrid zone, chastity is scarcely regarded as a 
virtue by a majority of the people, and very little regard 
is paid to the marriage vow. 

The custom of concubinage, so common in New Or- 
leans, and in some other Southern cities, is not an inter- 
course with slaves, but with free women, who have some 
African blood in their veins. It is induced by the heat 
of the climate, and not by slavery. Such is the principal 
cause also, of polygamy, in the old world. 

3d. Slavery is charged with a tendency to corrupt the 
free inhabitants — by directly promoting indolence, and 
indirectly encouraging amusements, gambling and other 
vices, which result from a want of industry and constant 
employment. 

There is much truth in this view of the case ; but hot 
climates also produce similar effects, where slavery does 
not exist. The mind of man must be occupied ; and if 
not occupied with labor, business, nor worship, it will be 
occupied in reading, reflection, conversation or amuse- 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 201 

ment of some kind. Hence indolence and want of em- 
ployment have a strong tendency to induce gambling, 
gaming, and other amusements of an exciting character, 
as means of passing away time ; and as hot climates tend 
to produce indolence, they contribute largely to the same 
evil tendencies. 

4th. Slavery is said to encourage ignorance, and to 
prevent the establishment and maintenance of schools for 
the education of the masses of the people. 

This is true to a very great extent, but it cannot be 
denied that such is the tendency also of a hot climate. 
Hot climates tend to make the senses quick and acute, 
the emotions and passions strong, to weaken self-control, 
and to make the people impulsive — to produce lassitude 
of both body and mind, when not moved by passion — to 
disincline persons to study or to much exertion either 
mental or physical ; and hence the ambition of the peo- 
ple is not so highly stimulated to industry, to make and 
accumulate property, and to acquire knowledge, as a 
means of rendering their industry effective, as it is in 
cold countries ; and therefore schools and education are 
not so highly appreciated by the laboring classes and the 
masses of the people in hot climates, as they are in cold 
ones. 

5th. Slavery is very properly charged with a tendency 
to create distinctions in society, with a tendency to build 
up an aristocracy, and to depress poor freemen, as well 
as slaves. 

Hot climates have similar effects. The landed estates 
of all the States of Mexico and South America, are much 
larger and fewer in number, in proportion to the whole 
population ; and the number of the poor who are depen- 
dent laborers and nearly destitute of property, is much 
larger, than it ever has been in any one of our Slave 
States. Many of the large landholders of Mexico, La 
Plata, and other South American States, count their cat- 
tle by thousands of head, and their lands by thousands, 
and some even by hundreds of thousands of acres. 

The number of* landed estates in the whole Republic 
of Mexico is stated in the New American Cyclopaedia, at 
13,000, the value of which is estimated at $720,000,000, 



202 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

being an average of over $55,000 each. This does not 
include the real estate in the towns and cities. What a 
tale that tells of the condition of the agricultural popu- 
lation of Mexico ! Only 13,000 persons owning farms in 
a large country, having a population of about eight mil- 
lions. All the other males employed in agriculture, com- 
prising perhaps over a million adult males, are poor and 
dependent laborers ; and yet slavery was abolished in 
Mexico, nearly half a century since. We have at least 
five times as many farmers owning the farms they culti- 
vate, in Michigan, as there are in the whole Republic of 
Mexico. 

The condition of New Grenada, Buenos Ayres, and 
nearly all South America, is about the same as that of 
Mexico. The property and lands of all those countries 
are monopolized by a few great proprietors ; while the 
masses of the population are poor and dependent labor- 
ers. Landed estates are much fewer in number, and 
perhaps ten times as large on an average in Mexico, and 
the countries of Central and South America, as they are 
in our cotton and sugar States ; twenty times as large as 
they are in the northern slave States, and fifty times as 
large as they are in our free States. 

Such marked effects have not been produced without 
adequate causes. Some attribute them to Catholicism in 
those countries. But that cannot be the true cause ; for 
there is no greater inequality between the Catholic popu- 
lation of Canada and the United States, than there is 
among Protestants ; and lands are as much subdivided 
in Catholic France, as in any country in the world. It 
may be stated as a general proposition, that nearly all the 
valuable lands, in all hot climates, are usually monopo- 
lized by a few great proprietors, and that the masses of 
the people are poor and landless laborers. Such is the 
case also in some temperate and cold countries, where 
we can usually trace such results to causes other than 
climate. But the monopoly of lands is so universal in 
hot countries, that we can find no cause but the heat of 
the climate, which could have produced such a remark- 
able fact. Hence I conclude that the inequalities of for- 
tune and the" size of landed estates at the South, will not 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 203 

be very greatly lessened by the abolition of slavery, and 
the change in the legal status of the masses of the Afri- 
can race in our country — the most of whom have been 
converted from slaves into poor and dependent laborers, 
as was the case in Mexico, and in Central and South 
America. 

The educated and wealthy portions of the white race 
will retain their superiority of intellect and position, from 
generation to generation ; while the combined influences 
of a hot climate, natural inferiority of intellect, and want 
of education, or a defective education, will keep the 
masses of the colored race in a condition of inferiority. 
Perhaps the condition of the descendants of a majority 
of the late slave population may be considerably im- 
proved ; but the improvement will be small, when com- 
pared with the expectations of a large portion of the 
northern people. 

Sec. 12. Condition and Character of the Jews and 
Negroes compared. 

The Jews were mostly driven out of Palestine more 
than 'twelve centuries since. They were dispersed among 
all the civilized nations of the earth, and have been every- 
where, until a comparatively recent period, treated with 
great harshness and very generally oppressed ; and yet 
they have ever shown a high order of intellect as a 
people, great shrewdness and energy of character — per- 
severance and industry — prudence and providence for the 
future, self-reliance and capacity for business — for the ac- 
cumulation of property, and for self-government. In all 
these particulars the free negro, as a general rule, has 
shown great defects of character. The negro is deficient 
in self-reliance, in capacity to direct his own industry, to 
plan and manage any complicated business ; and has 
shown himself, as a general rule, fit only for a subor- 
dinate and dependent condition — to labor under the di- 
rection of others. 

The free negro has been treated with more consider- 
ation in the United States and in the British West Indies 
than the Jews have in many countries, for more than a 



204 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

thousand years past ; and yet what a wonderful contrast 
between the condition occupied by the Jews and that 
of the free negro ! No good reason can be assigned 
for that contrast, except the difference in the capacity of 
the two races. Subjection to tyranny and oppression de- 
stroys manliness of character, independence of mind, and 
moral courage ; but never crushes out intellect. 

Sec 13. Future status of the Colored Man, and danger 
of conferring Political Power tipon uneducated Negroes. 

The colored people of the United States are natives of 
our country. They know no other, and they have nat- 
ural rights here as natives. But what place in future 
they are to occupy in our social fabric, must depend upon 
their capacity for self-government, and their capacity to 
regulate their own industry. If they prove themselves 
equal in natural intellect and capacity to the whites, they 
should and will eventually acquire the right of suffrage 
and political power. But so long as they fail to show by 
the test of experience under favorable circumstances, that 
they are, as a race of people, equal to the whites in nat- 
ural intellect and capacity for improvement — so long they 
will occupy an inferior station, notwithstanding the agi- 
tation of the question by fanatics and political partisans. 

To settle and determine by proper legislation the po- 
litical status which the colored races should occupy, is 
one of the great political problems of the age. Many 
zealous Republicans have been agitating the question of 
conferring the right of suffrage and eligibility to office 
upon the colored man, to make the colored races allies of 
their party \ in order to promote and secure its ascendency 
in the government. The motives of their action are party 
spirit and selfis/mess, not patriotism, nor sympathy for the 
colored man. Whether such a policy be, or be not, con- 
sistent with the peace and welfare of our country, must 
be determined by experience and by the capacity of the 
colored race for improvement. Universal suffrage can 
be safely exercised only by an educated, enlightened, and 
moral people, who are capable of thinking for themselves. 

In five of the New England States, colored men are 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 205 

allowed the same privileges of voting as white men, but 
being few in number, it has been of no advantage to 
them. In New York they are allowed a qualified suf- 
frage ; in all the other States they are denied all political 
rights and privileges. 

At an early day the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
and Missouri, passed oppressive laws to prevent colored 
men coming from other States and settling in them. The 
Legislature of Illinois has recently repealed the black laws 
of that State, and the colored people are now allowed the 
some civil rights as the white inhabitants. The colored 
people have ever enjoyed full civil rights in the States 
of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Mary- 
land, and some other States. 

The constitution of Maryland was amended in 1864, 
and slavery abolished, but the right of suffrage was not 
conferred upon colored men. The African race in that 
State constitutes more than one-fourth of the whole pop- 
ulation. 

The constitutional convention of Missouri, which 
formed, in 1865, a new State constitution, passed an 
ordinance, and gave it immediate effect, by which they 
emancipated all the slaves of the State. The question 
was forced upon them to determine the future political 
status of the colored man, and they refused, by a vote of 
twenty-eight to twenty, to extend the elective franchise 
to him. 

A meeting of union men at Nashville, in the fall of 
1864, ordered a State convention, and the election of dele- 
gates to the same. The State convention so ordered 
met and made amendments to the constitution of the 
State of Tennessee, abolished slavery therein, and reor- 
ganized the State government ; but did not confer the 
elective franchise on colored men. The legislature of 
the State, elected under the reorganization, approved the 
amendment to the Constitution of the United States — to 
abolish and prohibit slavery throughout the Union — and 
that amendment has been approved by three-fourths of 
the States, and takes effect as a part of the federal con- 
stitution. 

When the new Constitution of Iowa was adopted in 



206 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

1857, the people also voted on a proposition to strike out 
the word white in the section defining the qualifications 
of voters, and thus confer the right of suffrage upon col- 
ored men ; but the proposition was voted down by a 
large majority. In the year i860 a similar proposition 
was submitted to the electors of the State of New York, 
and voted down by over one hundred and forty thousand 
majority. A similar proposition was submitted to the 
electors of Michigan in 185 1, and voted down by a large 
majority. 

In 1862 a proposition was submitted to the electors of 
the State of Illinois, to grant the right of suffrage to ne- 
groes and mulattoes, and the same was rejected by a vote 
of two hundred and eleven thousand nine hundred and 
twenty against it ; and only thirty-five thousand six hun- 
dred and forty-nine for it — being nearly five to one. In 
1865 the electors of Connecticut rejected, by a majority 
of over six thousand votes, a proposition to extend the 
elective franchise to colored men in that State. 

A majority of the descendants of the Puritans are in 
favor of negro suffrage ; but more than three-fourths of 
ail the other white inhabitants of the United States be- 
lieve the negroes to be an inferior race of people — greatly 
inferior in natural intellect to the white races — and that 
the masses of them are not fitted for the exercise of the 
elective franchise, with either advantage to themselves, 
or safety to the State, or to the communities in which 
they live. 

In Michigan, Massachusetts, and some other States, 
the laws prohibit intermarriages between white and 
colored persons. On the contrary, some philanthropists 
and political philosophers of our country advocate inter- 
marriages, and an amalgamation of the races. Some 
favor political and civil, and even social equality between 
the races ; some are in favor of only civil and political 
equality — making all men equal before the law — without 
encouraging social equality ; while many are opposed to 
equality of any kind. 

Some are in favor of colonizing all that can be induced 
to leave the country ; while others are in favor of using 
oppressive means to drive them out of the country, and 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 207 

leave it to the sole occupancy of the white man, and to 
gradually crush out and exterminate by tyranny all who 
will not emigrate. 

After the termination of the rebellion in 1865, Presi- 
dent Johnson issued his proclamation of amnesty, and 
appointed Provisional Governors for the seceding States, 
under whom proceedings were initiated for the reorgani- 
zation of those States ; conventions were called, new con- 
stitutions were formed, and they were reorganized in 
accordance with the recommendations of the President, 
and with the laws then in force. Zealous philanthropists 
and ambitious partisans then pressed the subject of ne- 
gro suffrage upon the President with great pertinacity, 
and urged him to disregard the constitutions and laws of 
those States — regulating the right of suffrage, adopted 
prior to the rebellion ; to prescribe the qualifications of 
electors of delegates to their constitutional conventions ; 
to confer the elective franchise on the freedmen ; and to 
force negro suffrage upon all those States, as a condition 
precedent to their restoration to their proper places in 
the Union. The President refused to usurp such powers ; 
and in forming new constitutions, none of those constitu- 
tional conventions saw fit to confer the right of suffrage 
upon any class of colored men ; but each and all excluded 
the negroes from the exercise of any political power, 
and reestablished their respective State governments 
upon the white basis. 

The second section of the proposed amendments to 
the Constitution of the United States, passed by Con- 
gress in 1866 — proposing to give those States full repre- 
sentation in Congress for the colored people, on condition 
that the elective franchise should be conferred on colored 
men, and not otherwise — was intended as a political 
bribe, to induce those States to confer political power on 
the negro. But the amendments proposed were rejected 
by each of them very hastily, without due consideration, 
and without proposing to adopt any portion thereof, or 
any substitute for them. They obstinately, and without 
reason, resisted all amendments to the federal constitu- 
tion, and were as determined to continue their power and 
dominion over the negro, as the Radical Republicans were 



208 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

to make him an ally — to perpetuate their political power 
in the Union. 

Such conflicting views and objects prevented a com- 
promise, and the adoption of such rational amendments 
to the Constitution of the United States as would secure 
the rights of the negro and the restoration of the Union 
upon a proper basis, without endangering the future 
peace of the country. 

Such was the ambition of the dominant party, and the 
conflicting state of public opinion in relation to the ne- 
gro and negro suffrage, when in March, 1867, Congress 
passed the military bill — to put all those States under 
military rule — to subvert the State governments — to 
force upon them negro suffrage — and to reorganize them 
under the influence of universal negro suffrage. 

The object of those that framed and supported that 
revolutionary measure is obvious. It is to make the ne- 
groes allies of the Republican party — to obtain the po- 
litical control of those States, and thereby perpetuate the 
ascendency of that party in the Union ; and also to force 
New England ideas and opinions, and New England 
manners and customs, laws, and usages, upon the South- 
ern States. If their views of the capacity of the negro 
were correct, they would have a better apology for such 
revolutionary and extreme measures to attain the ends 
proposed. 

What the result will be, time only can determine. It 
seems now almost certain that universal negro suffrage 
will be forced upon the seceding States ; but it canno;; 
be forced upon Kentucky, Delaware, and Maryland, nor 
upon many of the Northern States, until a great change 
in public opinion shall have taken place. If the experi- 
ment should be successful and generally satisfactory, the 
system will eventually prevail in all the States ; but if 
not generally satisfactory to good and patriotic public 
men, a reaction will take place, and the further progress 
of the system will be arrested. 

To allow the colored man the same civil rights and 
privileges as are allowed to the white man, is right and 
proper, and justice requires it ; but to concede to him 
political powers, and make him politically equal with the 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 2(X) 

white man, involves the question of his capacity to exer- 
cise such powers with advantage to himself and with 
safety to the country. To make uneducated negroes 
voters, jurymen, and public officers, seems to me like the 
most gigantic farce ever enacted in the history of the 
world. It will inevitably excite rivalships and struggles 
for political power between the races, in States and dis- 
tricts where there are great numbers of each ; and there 
is much reason to fear it will result in terrible tragedy. 

In the States of South Carolina and Louisiana the col- 
ored people of African descent constitute a majority of 
all the inhabitants ; and in all the States south of the 
thirty-fifth degree of latitude, a majority of all the voters 
under the military reconstruction acts, will be colored 
men ; nearly all the large property-holders and best edu- 
cated men will be disfranchised ; the legislation and ad- 
ministration of those States will be controlled by the 
votes of negroes having very little education, if any at all ; 
the government of several States will be mostly in the 
hands of colored men, and the white inhabitants will be 
subject to their rule. The effect will be to subject the 
educated, intelligent, and experienced of the white race, 
to the rule of officers elected by uneducated, ignorant 
and inexperienced negroes, and subject to their preju- 
dices, social and political delusions, and the policies 
adopted by partisan conventions, composed mostly of 
negroes. Is it possible to have a good and well-admin- 
istered government with such rulers, and under such 
influences ? 

The negroes, at first, will be led by ambitious white 
men, mostly from the North, who incite them to distrust 
their former masters and nearly all Southern white men, 
and to organize themselves into a political party opposed 
to them. Political strife and the exercise of the elective 
franchise will soon generate ambition for office and the 
exercise of power, and stimulate many of the colored 
men to aspire to the leadership in cities, villages, and 
counties ; and they will become candidates for office and 
office holders more and more, until they assume the 
entire leadership of the colored population, and fill nearly 
all the offices in several of the States. 



210 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

The tendency and necessary effect will be to form 
political parties in accordance with the distinctions of 
race — to arrange nearly all the colored men in one poli- 
tical party, and nearly all the white men into another 
political party ; the struggle for power and dominion 
will wax warmer and warmer, and more and more violent, 
until nothing but the strong arm of the Federal Govern- 
ment, with a large standing army, can preserve the peace 
of the country, and prevent a war of races in those States. 

To encourage industry, frugality, and the accumulation 
of property among them, it is desirable that the New 
York experiment should be tried in the Southern States, 
where the colored people are numerous ; and that the 
elective franchise should be extended to colored men, 
who accumulate and hold two hundred and fifty or three 
hundred dollars' worth of unincumbered taxable property. 
It would be well also to extend the elective franchise to 
educated colored men, to those carrying on business, and 
to a certain class of householders ; to authorize those 
classes to vote for the most numerous branch of the legis- 
lature ; and to confine the elective franchise for sena- 
tors, governor, and some other classes of officers, to the 
white electors. Such a policy would soon test the capacity 
of colored men to use political power properly, without 
exciting their ambition for official station and dominion. 
It would not be likely to induce clannish combinations 
among them, to control elections, nor to excite strifes 
and hostility between them and the white inhabitants. 

The dangers would be ten-fold less, if the elective 
franchise only should be conferred on colored men, and 
they required to choose between white men, for public 
officers ; if white men only should be eligible, in future 
as heretofore, to elective offices, and to the jury box. 
Such a system would not stimulate the personal ambition 
of negro leaders for place and power, and the emoluments 
of offices they are incompetent to fill", with credit to them- 
selves, advantage to their race, or safety to the country ; 
the negroes would very generally be governed less by 
passion and prejudices of race, and would act and vote 
with more calmness, moderation, and consideration. 
They would not be likely, under such a system, to form 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 211 

themselves into clannish combinations exclusively, or 
mostly of their own race, to control elections, obtain 
power, govern the country, and maintain a constant strug- 
gle with, or dominion over, the white population. It by 
no means follows, as a rule of political philosophy, that 
every voter should be eligible to every, or any elective 
office. 



Sec. 14. Security of the Colored Man. 

It has been said that the colored men of the Southern 
States, without the elective franchise, have no security 
for their rights. The question may be asked — how are 
the rights of females secured ? Certainly not by the bal- 
lot. How have the rights of the free colored people of 
Delaware, Maryland, and the District of Columbia been 
secured for more than half a century past ? In what 
does the security of the negroes consist in the Middle 
and North- Western States, where their labor is not much 
needed, and where they come in competition with great 
numbers of foreign laborers, who are unfriendly to them ? 
Their security does not depend on the elective franchise 
— for they do not enjoy it. It must depend on the con- 
stitution and laws, and on the spirit of justice which pre- 
vails among the people. 

At the South the labor of the colored man is indispen- 
sable to the cultivation and prosperity of the country. 
All recognize the want of his labor, and there is no hos- 
tile feeling towards him as a laborer. The only opposition 
there now, is to his enjoying the same social and political 
status as the white man. He now depends, and must 
depend for his security, upon the demand for his labor, 
upon the Constitution of the United States as amended, 
the power of Congress, and the sense of justice of the 
American people. 

It is the agitation of the question of negro suffrage 
which alarms the Southern people, and excites their fears 
that they may, in many districts and counties, and in 
some whole States, be subjected to the government of 
the negroes ; and there is much reason to believe that 
conferring the elective franchise on the masses of the 



212 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

negroes would soon engender bitter dissensions and vio- 
lent controversies between them and the whites, which 
would excite mobs and massacres, and finally result in a 
war of races. If the colored people will quietly occupy 
the place of laborers and cease to agitate the question 
of suffrage, there is no reason to doubt that their rights 
will be quite as well protected at the South as at the North, 
and they will be received and treated with much more 
sympathy and consideration. 

An amendment to the Constitution of the United 
States — declaring that no State shall enact or enforce 
any law, which makes any discrimination in the civil 
rights and privileges of citizens, on account of race, color, 
or religion, would do more than the elective franchise to 
secure the rights, and promote the welfare of the negro. 

Sec 15. Miscegenation, and the Improvement of the 
Colored Races. 

It appears to many like cruel injustice and a gross vio- 
lation of the natural and civil rights of colored men, to 
deny them the rights of being united in the holy bands 
of matrimony with white women, to whom they have 
made themselves agreeable, and whose affections they 
have won. It is equally unjust and cruel to white men 
and white women, as well as to colored females, to deny 
to them the precious rights of being united in the bands 
of wedlock with the dearest objects of their affections, 
on account of difference in race, and color of the parties. 
It seems strange that the Puritans of Massachusetts, 
Michigan, and some other States should be guilty of such 
refined cruelty to the colored people, and some portion 
of the whites also. It does not operate so harshly on the 
whites as on the blacks — for but few of the former could 
get colored companions, if there were no laws to prohibit 
them. On the other hand, nearly all the colored people, 
by their amiability and their attractions, might find white 
companions — who, partly from patriotic motives, might 
be willing to aid in producing an improved race of Amer- 
icans, on the theory of " miscegenation." 

That cruel law prohibiting such marriages, originated 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 213 

in Massachusetts more than a century and a half since, 
and when the philanthropy and patriotism of the Puri- 
tans was not so enlightened as it is now. The passage 
of such a law shows that the colored boys and girls among 
them had some amiable and fascinating qualities, by 
which they won the affections of the sons and daughters 
of the Puritans, and rendered it necessary to pass the 
law, to prevent such marriages. But such unjust and 
barbarous laws are unworthy of this enlightened age, 
and should be repealed. 

It is easy to show how, by miscegenation, a higher 
type of religious people can be produced than the world 
has yet seen. Among the principal elements of religious 
devotion may be reckoned a fervid imagination, a warm, 
genial, and pliable temperament, a mild and placid tem- 
per, a gentle, meek, and submissive spirit, a feeling of de- 
pendence on their fellow beings as well as on the Deity, 
and exemption from excessive selfishness, avarice, and 
ambition. In all these natural characteristics and Chris- 
tian virtues the African races and the negroes of the 
United States are superior to the Puritans, to the Scotch, 
the English, the Germans, or any people who inhabit a 
high latitude and a cold climate. A large portion of the 
colored people of the South may be classed among the 
most religious and devoted people in the world. 

Among the puritanic elements of religious devotion 
may be reckoned firmness and energy of character, which 
render a pious people stable, consistent, and constant in 
their devotions — ambitious to spread the Gospel and to 
convert their neighbors, and the Heathen also. Such 
characteristics contribute to make men zealous, earnest, 
and untiring in their efforts to extend the dominion of 
the Church, and to propagate their peculiar doctrines and 
forms of Christianity. Among the educated people, such 
characteristics are often united with active, acute, and 
calculating minds — with rigid and inflexible tempera- 
ments, sometimes with harshness and asperity of temper, 
with intolerance of feeling and opinion, with a proud and 
exclusive spirit, and great ambition for position, power, 
and dominion. Such a people are better qualified to be 



214 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

religious teachers, than meek and humble followers of the 
precepts of Christianity. 

It is indisputable, that selfishness is more generally 
strong, and much more excessive in cold, than it is in hot 
and warm climates. It is very certain that not only 
physical qualities and capacities, powers and weaknesses, 
are transmitted from parent to child ; but that mental 
and moral, social and religious characteristics, which arise 
partly from education and partly from physical organiza- 
tion and temperament, are also transmitted. In fact we 
may say, that the influence of the education, and the 
habits of thought and action of parents, are more or less 
transmitted to their offspring, and become, in the latter, 
natural tendencies and aptitudes, propensities and in- 
stincts. When these truths are considered, who can say 
that the establishment of the political and social equality 
of the races, and the infusion of some warm African 
blood into the cold and phlegmatic constitutions and tem- 
peraments of a considerable portion of the northern peo- 
ple, might not produce a more perfect social, moral, and 
religious race, than the world has heretofore developed. 

Such an amalgamation of different characteristics, 
originally produced by extremes of heat and cold, would 
tend to lessen the mental acuteness, and genius for in- 
vention and mechanics, of the New England Yankee ; 
but it would tend to produce a race having more imagin- 
ation and fancy, greater versatility of intellect ; more 
warmth of feeling and generosity of character ; more 
taste and genius for the fine arts ; more richly endowed 
with the elements of religious devotion ; and more origin- 
ality of thought, on social, political, and religious subjects. 
Who can say that such an amalgamation of races, with 
general education, would not tend to produce a more 
chivalric and noble character, and on the whole a higher 
type of civilization, than has ever existed on the earth ? 

This view of the matter sounds like fiction or sarcasm 
to some — while to others it appears like a future reality, 
It is a philosophical statement of the tendency of amal- 
gamation — and the conclusions stated contain much truth 
— but exaggerated truth, tinged with sophistry. The in- 
fluence of amalgamation operates on comparatively few 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 215 

persons ; while the influences of climate, education, and 
habits of thought and action, are constantly operating on 
the whole people : so that on the whole, the power of the 
latter class of influences upon the people of a nation is 
overwhelming ; while that of the former is confined to 
so few persons, that its influence is trifling, in a national 
point of view. 

In the course of the debate in the United States Sen- 
ate, upon the establishment of civil government in the 
Indian Territory, in 1865, Mr. Lane, of Kansas, said that 
" amalgamation between the Indians and the blacks, pro- 
duced the finest race of men on the face of the earth. He 
had seen specimens, and the true anti-slavery men of the 
country ought to throw open this 84,000 miles of terri- 
tory to the Indians and the negroes, and let them mix as 
much as they please." 

Many theoretical philanthropists have great expecta- 
tions from the emancipation of African slaves, giving 
them equal civil and political rights with the whites, edu- 
cating them, and amalgamating a portion of them with 
the white population. All such measures (except popu- 
lar education) have been carried into practical effect in 
Mexico, Brazil, New Grenada, and all the Spanish Amer- 
ican states, during nearly half a century past ; and history 
has recorded the result. Let those that wish informa- 
tion on the subject, consult the history of those countries, 
and they can learn the operation of these theories, and 
the present condition of the mixed and colored popula- 
tion thereof. They will learn that the white inhabitants 
of European descent, constitute the ruling classes, even 
where universal suffrage exists. They will also learn the 
feeble influence of personal freedom, o'f the elective fran- 
chise, and amalgamation, in elevating the colored races. 

Sec 16. The American Indians — their Intellectual 
Capacity and Character. 

The aboriginal races and populations of the continent 
of America, of all latitudes and climates, present a re- 
markable approximation to sameness of type. They ex- 
hibit no such variety of intellectual capacity and character, 



2l6 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

of shape and size of cranium, and color of skin, as are 
exhibited in different countries and climates of the old 
world. They all seem to be of an inferior grade of in- 
tellect, when compared with the European, and the popu- 
lations of western Asia. Why is this — and how can it be 
accounted for? 

The inferior size and shape of the cranium of the In- 
dians is caused by the imperfect development of the 
brain — which has arisen from the deficient exercise of the 
faculties of the mind during its growth, and also from the 
imperfect development of the intellects and brains of an- 
cestors. An active, educated, and intelligent people, 
whose minds are exercised upon a great variety of sub- 
jects, always have well-developed brains, which improve 
from one generation to another, until they attain the ut- 
most limit of human development. 

Letters and science, books and maps, periodicals and 
schools, constitute the principal means of exercising the 
minds of youth, and developing their intellectual faculties. 
The Indians never had any of these advantages, until a 
comparatively recent period. They never had the use of 
letters, nor written languages, until white missionaries 
furnished them. Letters and a written language consti- 
tute the initial point of accumulated knowledge, and the 
only means of great intellectual achievements. They 
furnish the only means of preserving knowledge and 
handing it down to posterity. Without them, the knowl- 
edge acquired by each individual would generally die 
with him. They constitute the great storehouse which 
preserves the knowledge of previous ages, and the key 
which unlocks the whole to their successors. 

Neither the American Indians, the Ethiopians, nor any 
of the inhabitants of the torrid zone, in either Africa or 
America, ever had an alphabet or a written language of 
their own. They have not intellect to invent them — 
even with the aid of the alphabets and languages of Eu- 
rope. The Aztecs and other ancient inhabitants of Mex- 
ico, Peru, and Central America, had hieroglyphics only. 

Written language and some means of representing 
numbers are necessary to fix in the mind the premises of 
almost all human reasoning. Without them it is impos- 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 21*/ 

sible to reason, except within a very limited sphere. 
Without them man learns a few practical things by imi- 
tation, a few tribal exploits and events from oral tradition, 
and some individuals learn something from experience, 
observation, and reflection ; but the brains of all remain 
but slightly developed, for want of exercise of sufficient 
variety and extent ; and their intellects are dwarfed. 

But why was an alphabet invented in the old world, 
and not in the new ? Is the climate of all parts of the 
latter less favorable than the most favored parts of the 
former for the full development of the intellectual and 
inventive faculties ? I cannot believe that such is the case, 
and can account for the fact only on the theory that the 
invention was made where the climate and a variety of 
concurrent circumstances were all the most favorable for 
the development of the intellectual and inventive facul- 
ties, and the suggestion of the particular steps in the 
train of observation and reasoning which finally led to 
that particular invention ; that the aborigines of America 
are descendants from inferior races of people ; and that 
no such favorable circumstances concurred to suggest 
such an invention in the new world. 



Domestic Animals, and their uses. 

The domestication and use of a number of animals, 
constitutes one of the first steps, and in many countries 
the very first step, in the process of civilization. The cow 
and the ox, the horse and the ass, the sheep and the hog, 
the camel and the dromedary, the goat and the dog, have 
all been of great consequence to the human family — some 
as laborers and beasts of burden ; some to furnish food ; 
and the sheep to furnish materials for both food and 
clothing. All these animals were indigenous in western 
Asia ; but none of them were natives of America, or 
known upon the western continent until they were in- 
troduced from the old world, early in the sixteenth cen- 
tury. No animal of much value for domestic use was a 
native of America. Even our domestic fowls were im- 
ported from Europe. 

A pastoral life is a grade above that of the hunter and 



2l8 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

the fisherman. Cattle and horses are necessary for agri- 
cultural purposes — to draw the plow, the harrow, and 
other instruments, to subdue and cultivate the earth. 
They are also necessary, as well as the camel, in. some 
countries, to draw loads, and carry burdens, and act as 
instruments to aid in carrying on commerce. 

The aborigines of America, being destitute of animals 
fit for domestic uses, could not cultivate the earth, nor 
carry on commerce, to any considerable extent. They 
were compelled to labor entirely by hand, and to live by 
hunting and fishing, and the spontaneous productions of 
the earth, without much agriculture or commerce. Hence 
they did not feel the want of letters or a written language, 
and were never prompted to make efforts to invent them. 
In fact, they probably never conceived an idea of such 
things. They therefore labored under very great disad- 
vantages, when compared with the first inhabitants of 
Asia, Europe, and northern Africa, which may account 
for the fact, that civilization grew up spontaneously in 
many countries of the old world, but could not in Amer- 
ica, without extraneous aid. 

The Indians of both North and South America, and 
more especially those living above the 35th degree of 
latitude, are solitary, unsocial beings, of a stoical nature, 
and deficient in sensibility — having sluggish and heavy 
minds, and very little vivacity or animal spirit. They are 
generally exempt from avarice, from ambition for domin- 
ion, and from all strong passions except for war and 
revenge. They have good common sense within the 
limited range of their comprehension, often exhibit great 
energy, have some noble traits of character, and are 
faithful allies ; but their habitual indolence, strong aver- 
sion to labor, obstinacy of temperament, dulness of com- 
prehension, and want of ambition, all contribute to render 
it nearly impossible to teach them the arts and sciences, 
the mechanic arts, or industry of any kind. And hence 
the efforts of the missionaries among them have been of 
little avail, and the mission schools have had but little 
effect, except on the half-breeds, who are more intelligent 
and docile. 

Avarice and ambition are natural stimulants of the 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 2ig 

human mind. They are the principal stimulants to study 
and improvement. Fixed habitations and individual prop- 
erty in real as well as personal estate, are necessary to 
develop human ambition, and produce a healthy state 
of mind. The Indians being destitute of avarice, and of 
ambition also, except for military glory, have not the 
requisite stimuli to render their minds active ; to fit them 
for inquiry and observation, for the reception of instruc- 
tion, and the acquisition of knowledge. The American Cy- 
clopaedia says of them : "As a race, the animal propensities 
strongly preponderate over the intellectual, and render their 
civilization, even with the help of education and Christianity, 
an event hardly to be hoped for? This, I think, puts them 
too low in the scale of being. They need some elements 
of progress and civilization, which our Federal Govern- 
ment can supply ; and as they have a large number of 
half-breeds among them that have inherited considerable 
natural talent and docility, and are capable of receiving 
instruction readily, and of becoming teachers and public 
officers, I think they may be improved as a race of people. 

The Indians of the torrid zone, and of hot climates 
below the 35th degree of latitude, without having any 
more intellect, are more pliable in their temperament 
than those of colder climates — more like the negro in 
constitution and character, more docile, and have made 
more progress in industry and the arts of civilization. 
The Creeks, Cherokees, and Choctaws, of the Southern 
States, have made more progress than any of the Indians 
of the North-Western States and Territories ; and so 
have the Indians of Mexico, and many parts of South 
America. 

The Indians are an isolated people, without any bond 
of union among them, except the family bond — having 
no organizing talent, and no talent for legislation. They 
are deficient also in imitative talent. 

Fixed habitations, individual property in lands, a writ- 
ten language and an established government, constitutes 
the first elements, and the initial points of human prog- 
ress and civilization. These our Federal Government 
can supply for them ; and also the outlines of a system 
of jurisprudence. 



220 DIFFFRENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

Let the United States unite the Creeks, Cherokees, 
Choctaws, and other tribes that have been colonized 
west of Arkansas ; organize a territorial government for 
them ; adopt for them the outlines of a code of laws, to 
regulate the distribution and descent of property, the or- 
ganization of courts of justice, the punishment of the 
higher grades of crime, and the sale of liquors ; appoint 
for them officers as in other territories, making appoint- 
ments from half-breeds and educated Indians, so far as fit 
men can be found among them ; allow them a local legis- 
lature, to be elected as in other Territories ; establish a 
system of education for them, and put a government in 
operation to be managed mostly by themselves. Such a 
measure would give them an opportunity, under the 
superintendence of a few federal officers, to learn the 
practical management of their own domestic affairs, in 
accordance with law, and with the genius of our civiliza- 
tion and system of government. 

The other tribes in the United States might be colo- 
nized in two or three places, and territorial governments 
organized for them in like manner. With the aid of or- 
ganized governments, Christian missions, and mission 
schools, there would be good reason to believe that the 
Indians might be taught industry and the arts of peace ; 
and gradually raised in the scale of intellect and morals. 

Sec. 17. Intellectual inferiority, miserable condition, and 
subserviency of the People of Mexico and South America, 
of Indian descent. 

Mexico, Peru, and all the countries of South America 
which were conquered and colonized by Spain, shook off 
the Spanish yoke nearly fifty years since, and have en- 
joyed an elective republican system of government since 
they became independent. In all those countries slavery 
was abolished by the revolution, and the inhabitants of 
Indian and African descent and the mixed races, have all 
enjoyed equal civil and political rights and privileges 
with the white inhabitants, of Spanish descent ; and yet 
the people of Indian descent have made very little prog- 
ress in civilization, and the logic of events has estab- 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 221 

lished beyond contradiction, their inferiority of race. 
They have manifested very nearly the same mental char- 
acteristics as the inhabitants of the torrid zone in Africa. 

In the imitative and mechanic arts, the Indians of 
Mexico, Peru, and other countries of Spanish America, 
are said to show considerable skill ; but every faculty of 
their minds except memory, is slow, dull, and seems to 
be almost inert. They have no originality or compre- 
hensiveness of thought, no powers of analysis, no inven- 
tive talent, no capacity for abstract reasoning, and no 
talent for business. Hence they are mostly employed in 
agricultural pursuits, and in menial employments ; and 
their social position is almost universally one of extreme 
poverty. The elective franchise has been of no advantage 
to them. 

In all those countries there is a wealthy church and 
priesthood, a powerful landed aristocracy, who monopolize 
nearly all the valuable lands of the country, and a poor 
and dependent laboring class of people, embracing all 
the colored, and nearly all mixed races. 

The number of landed estates in the Republic of Mexico 
(that is country estates), is stated in the New American 
Cyclopaedia at 13,000, valued at $720,000,000 — being an 
average of $55,384 for each estate. The average quan- 
tity of each estate mast be between ten and fifteen thou- 
sand acres. The real estate in cities, towns, and villages 
is there estimated at $635,000,000 — making a total val- 
uation of real estate in the Republic of $1,355,000,000. 
About half of the property in the cities of Mexico is said 
to belong to the Catholic Church and the priesthood. 

M. Chevalier, who is high authority upon the subject, 
and is often quoted in McCulloch's Universal Gazetteer, 
speaking of the inhabitants of Mexico of Indian descent, 
thirty years since, said : " Their character remains much 
the same as it is alleged to have been at the time of the 
conquest. Indolence, blind submission to their superiors, 
and gross superstition, are as much their characteristics 
now as formerly. The form of their religion is changed, 
and that is nearly all. They take the same childish de- 
light in the ceremonies and processions of the Catholic 
Church, as they once took in the fantastic mummeries of 



222 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

their original idolatry. They are scattered over the coun- 
try as laborers, distributed in villages, or else live in the 
towns as artisans, workmen, or beggars. In a few in- 
stances they have accumulated property, and acquired 
respectability ; but, in general, they are indolent, igno- 
rant, and poverty-stricken. We believe them to be 
wholly incapable of any high degree of civilization ; but 
they might, perhaps, be improved, were measures taken 
to enforce their education." 

Speaking of the Peruvians, McCulloch says: "The 
Indians are naturally an inferior race, and indeed wholly 
incapable of any degree of civilization." He says Ulloa, 
on whom he relies as good authority, " represents them 
as in the lowest stages of civilization, immersed in sloth 
and apathy, without any desire for the comforts and con- 
veniences of civilized life." 

The President of Peru is elected for six years, and the 
New American Cyclopaedia says : " In theory, the govern- 
ment is based on popular representative principles ; but 
in practice, it has degenerated into military despotism!' 

Slavery is prohibited by law in Chili, and yet the In- 
dians and mixed races are nearly all peon slaves or poor 
laborers, as they are in Mexico. The farms are said to 
be generally very large in Chili, frequently comprising 
several thousand acres — with heitls of cattle of 5,000, 
10,000, and even 20,000 in number. The daily wages of 
laborers is said to be from fifteen to thirty-seven cents, 
and generally one dollar per day in harvest time. 

The New American Cyclopaedia says : "The government 
of Chili is professedly republican, and its officers elective ; 
but practically, it has been little more than a dictator- 
ship." The President is elected for five years, and is 
eligible for a second term. The election of the legislature 
is usually entirely in the hands of the government — the 
mass of voters being the members of the national guard, 
who are appointees of the President, and the laborers 
and peons of the plantations and mines, who are entirely 
under the control of the wealthy proprietors, whose in- 
terests are the same as the President's. There had never 
been any opposition party in the legislature prior to 1850, 
when one was organized. Soon after the adjournment of 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 223 

the two houses, the most prominent of the opposition 
members were banished, or sent out of the country, by 
the President. 

Between the ist day of January, 1829, and the 1st day 
of January, i860, the President of the Republic of Mexico 
was deposed and banished by successful revolutions, or 
compelled to resign by insurrections and civil wars, in 
fifteen instances. The insurrections and civil wars in 
nearly every country of South America, except Brazil, 
have been numerous, many of which became successful 
revolutions. 

More than five-eighths of the inhabitants of New Gre- 
nada are of pure Spanish descent, not over one-quarter 
Indians and negroes, and one-eighth mixed breeds. In 
Chili, Peru, Buenos Ayres, and the Argentine Confedera- 
tion, about three-eighths or more of the inhabitants are 
pure whites of European descent ; while in Mexico not 
one-fifth part of the whole population are whites, of pure 
European blood. The instability of the Spanish American 
Republics and the multiplicity of revolutions in them, 
have been in proportion to the predominance of the In- 
dian and mixed races. The government has been most 
stable in New Grenada, where the white population pre- 
dominates more than in any other part of Spanish 
America. 

Such is republicanism or democracy, as you please to 
call it, among different populations, consisting of superior, 
inferior, and mixed races, with universal suffrage, in Mex- 
ico and South America. Of what consequence is the 
right of suffrage to the poor Indians and peons of those 
countries ? Is not their continuance in such a state of 
poverty, dependence, and subserviency to the inhabitants 
of Spanish descent, conclusive evidence of their natural 
inferiority of intellect ? and does it not harmonize with 
the mass of evidence furnished by the world's history, 
that the inhabitants whose ancestors have lived for ages 
in the torrid zone, are inferior in natural intellect to the 
inhabitants of temperate climates ? Is there any reason 
to believe that the late plantation slaves of the cotton 
States are superior in natural intellect, capacity for self- 
government, and qualifications for the exercise of the 



224 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

elective franchise, to the natives of Mexico and South 
America, of Indian descent ? 

The history of Mexico, Brazil, and other countries of 
South America, is full of instruction to the student of 
social and political philosophy, who is seeking after truth, 
and the causes of the harmony and prosperity of nations 
and peoples, and the source of discord and dissension 
among them. The frequent revolutions and civil wars in 
St. Domingo, and the insurrections and savage cruelties 
of the free colored people of the British island of Jamaica 
in 1865, also furnish much valuable instruction and warn- 
ing upon the same subject. 

Sec. 18. The education of the Colored Races, of both 
Indian and African descent. 

The inferiority of intellect of the colored races of 
America, of both Indian and African descent, having 
been shown, and the difficulty of educating and changing 
the roving habits of the Indian referred to, the question 
arises, how far those races can be improved by education. 
That the brains of all the races of colored men are in- 
ferior in size, and the intellectual organs imperfectly de- 
veloped, is a physiological fact, that is well established. 
Such being the case, it would seem to be a logical con- 
clusion, that they are not capable of receiving a high 
grade of intellectual culture ; and the general experience 
of Christian missionaries and missionary schools, both in 
America and Africa, during the last two centuries, verify 
the truth of that conclusion. 

As their inferiority of intellect arises from the imper- 
fect development of the organs of the brain upon which 
the intellectual faculties depend, which has been in- 
herited and caused by the want of sufficient exercise of 
those faculties in a long line of ancestors, it will be im- 
possible to improve the intellectual power of a single 
generation very much, by education. It will require the 
education and industrial activity of several successive 
generations to produce such a degree of cerebral develop- 
ment and mental activity, as to make them equal in in- 
tellectual power and capacity to that portion of the most 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 225 

enlightened nations of Europe and America, who have 
received no scholastic education. The first generation 
may be taught to read and write, some knowledge of 
numbers and the more common rules of arithmetic ; and 
also some knowledge of geography. But beyond this it 
will be impossible to teach more than one full-blooded 
negro or Indian in ten ; and perhaps not one in one 
hundred will be found capable of farther advancement. 
Those that are half or three-quarters white, and only 
part of African or Indian descent, have generally in- 
herited brains very differently organized, and intellectual 
powers of a much higher order. 

As they are generally incapable of receiving much 
scholastic education in their present condition, it is im- 
portant to give them an industrial education — to teach 
them the practical employments of life, including the 
practical labors of farming, the mechanic arts, and the 
common grades of business. They can learn such things 
mostly from example, and by imitation, without much 
intellect ; and the active pursuit of such employments, 
with some reading and reflection, will furnish food for the 
mind, tend to make it more active, and to develop and 
improve its faculties, and to increase in size the organs 
of the brain on which they depend. The improvement 
in the organization of the brain and the development of 
the faculties of the mind, will be transmitted from parent 
to child — so that each succeeding generation that has an 
industrial education and some common school education, 
will improve, and be superior to its predecessors. 

There have been some cases of Indians as well as ne- 
groes, and many half-breeds, who have been educated 
and became tolerably good scholars, and particularly in 
the languages ; but such cases are rare, and none of 
them have ever distinguished themselves in the sciences, 
or in any department of knowledge. The intellectual 
capacity of a race of people can be determined only by 
their history, and by the average improvement of those 
who have had educational advantages ; and not by the 
attainments of a very few of the most talented. Much 
less can it be determined by the improvement and the 
capacity of the half-breeds. 

10* 



226 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

The Indians of high latitudes and cold climates are so 
wild in their nature, so obstinate in their temperaments, 
so fixed in their roving habits, and so averse to common 
and continuous labor, that they are not inclined to make 
an effort to learn. The negroes, and the Indians of hot 
climates, are more pliable in their temperaments, more 
sociable in their nature, and therefore more susceptible 
of receiving instruction ; and yet they have no capacity 
to learn anything of an abstract character, requiring long 
processes of reasoning. They can perceive what lies 
upon the surface of things, and is obvious to the senses. 
Such things they have capacity to apprehend, and mem- 
ory to retain ; but beyond that, they can learn only from 
example and imitation. 

An industrial education is acquired by imitation, by 
looking on and witnessing the processes of labor, and by 
practice under the personal direction of an instructor — 
usually of a parent, teaching by example. Such an edu- 
cation, with the elements of a common school education, 
the negro and the Indian also is capable of receiving, and 
thereby making himself useful in civilized life. An indus- 
trial as well as a scholastic education is generally acquired 
by children and youth, while the mind is plastic and easily 
moulded ; and when so acquired, with habits of industry, 
labor in health is seldom burthensome in after life. 

Capacity to labor and to do any particular thing, is 
acquired by practice, and by practice only ; the inceptive 
steps of which originate in imitation and in instruction 
by example, and not by precept — by seeing the thing 
done, and making efforts to do it, and not by learning 
the process by didactic instruction at school. 

By an industrial education the senses are exercised 
and developed, disciplined, and rendered quick and acute ; 
and the faculties of the mind, which are intimately asso- 
ciated with exercise and industrial action, are also de- 
veloped and disciplined. Practice is said to make perfect. 
It does so by training the muscles and their nerves to 
associated action, whereby a habit is formed, which fa- 
cilitates action, and renders it independent of thought. 

By such means the masses of the English and Irish 
mechanics and miners, manufacturing and agricultural 



DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 22/ 

laborers, are educated and trained, and their faculties de- 
veloped and disciplined ; whereby they acquire great skill 
in their respective callings, generally without the slightest 
knowledge acquired from schools or books. They learn 
also from each other ; from hearing educated persons 
converse ; from prayers, sermons, and other exercises in 
church ; from occasional public addresses and speeches ; 
from shows, public fairs, and exhibitions ; and from their 
own reflections upon what they have seen and heard. 
By such means the masses of the people of Great Britain, 
Ireland, and many other countries, are educated, and ac- 
quire much useful knowledge, without ever learning to 
read or write. 

By such means even the plantation slaves of the South 
have been educated in relation to everything connected 
with the plantation ; and those slaves that are mechanics 
and domestic servants, have acquired a vast amount of 
useful knowledge, with many of the habits, customs, and 
sentiments of civilized life. Such are the causes and the 
practical modes of education which have raised in the 
scale of civilization, the whole mass of southern slaves, 
to a level greatly above that of the negro population of 
Africa. 

Domestic servants, mechanics, and all the slaves living 
in cities, have their minds exercised upon a much greater 
variety of subjects, and enjoy much greater opportunities 
for acquiring information than agricultural laborers upon 
plantations ; and hence the former are generally much 
superior in intellect and intelligence to the latter. This 
most favored class of slaves acquire, from hearing and 
observation, and without the aid of the schools, a very 
considerable degree of what may properly be termed an 
intellectual education. 

Skill in action, in labor, and in business of any kind, 
comes from an industrial education, and from practice, 
and not from books and a scholastic education ; but 
great abilities in the learned professions, in matters of 
science, in statesmanship, or in any very complicated 
business, can be acquired only by a competent education 
in the schools and an extensive knowledge of books, 
united with practical experience. Such abilities have 



228 DIFFERENCES IN THE RACES OF MEN. 

never been developed among full-blooded negroes or 
Indians, in any country. The schools and experience 
cannot produce them, without a higher order of natural 
talents than the colored races ever inherit. 



Sec. 19. Self-government, and its influences on the mind. 

The practice of self-government has a very considerable 
influence in exercising, developing, and maturing the 
minds of free men and free women. The slave has no 
contracts to make relative to his industry or his support. 
He is furnished food and clothing, shelter and lodging, 
and also medicines and medical attendance, and nursing 
in case of sickness. He depends on his master for every- 
thing, and hence he has no thought or care for the fu- 
ture. He can hold no property, and has no hope of 
improving his condition, or that of his children ; and 
therefore he has no inducement to labor, or to save. He 
has very few of the mental stimuli which excite the 
minds of freemen, and tend to render them active ; and 
hence, while his animal appetites and passions are stimu- 
lated and developed, his mental faculties remain nearly 
torpid. When these things are considered, no one need 
wonder at the stupidity of the descendants of slave parents, 
who have been born and educated as slaves. Very few 
of them can count beyond ten or twenty, or have capacity 
to reckon in their minds the aggregate amount of any- 
thing which involves a fraction. They have very few 
conceptions and ideas from which to reason. How very 
different the condition of freemen ! 

The unlettered freeman makes contracts for his own 
labor, calculates in his mind the amount of his wages, 
and receives payment from time to time; considers his 
wants from day to day, and how to supply them ; con- 
siders the relative cost and value of different articles, and 
how to expend his earnings to the best advantage. If he 
cannot supply all his wants, he determines in his own 
mind which are the most important ; and if he has any 
surplus, he inquires and reflects upon the relative advan- 
tages of the modes of investment which offer. 

Motives are presented to the mind to save ; to live 



INFLUENCES OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 229 

frugally and economically ; to be industrious ; to procure 
a home ; and to accumulate property, for the benefit of 
himself and his family. These subjects very frequently 
occupy his thoughts, furnish food and material for re- 
flection, exercise and tend to develop, enlarge, and ren- 
der more active the intellectual organs of the brain, to 
expand and improve the mind, and to increase his stock 
of useful knowledge. 

Such are the educating and improving influences of 
self-government, of which the slave is deprived. But 
such influences begin to operate upon the freedman as 
soon as he begins to provide for himself; and they will 
increase from year to year, and expand and improve the 
intellectual organs of the brain more and more, for a 
series of years ; and the improved organization of the 
brain of parents will be transmitted to their children. 
The second generation will be brighter, and capable of 
receiving a more extended education from schools and 
books than the first, and thus the race may, under favor- 
able influences, continue to improve from one generation 
to another, for ages to come. 

The fact that the freedmen of the Southern States are 
not generally fitted for the immediate exercise of political 
rights and powers, does not furnish satisfactory evidence 
that their descendants may not be so fitted, in the prog- 
ress of time, by the aid of teachers and schools, books 
and newspapers, sermons and public discourses, and the 
educating influences of self-government. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

Sec. I. General Remarks. 

Mahometanism and the Koran, with its rules and pre- 
cepts, not only regulate the religion and the morals, and 
have a controlling influence over the manners and cus- 
toms, but constitute the basis of the laws of every people 
who are followers of the prophet ; and hence there is a 
greater approximation to sameness in their laws and in- 
stitutions, in their character, and in their manners and 
customs, than there is among Christian nations, or even 
among the people of almost any one nation. As the 
Mussulmen constitute but a small portion of the inhab- 
itants of many of the provinces of Turkey in Europe, 
that country forms;, to some extent, an exception to the 
general rule stated — which applies only to the Turks, 
who rule the country. Though the Greeks and Schlaves 
are greatly oppressed and depressed by the tyranny of 
the Turks, and the paralyzing influences of Mahometan- 
ism, and Mahometan rule ; yet the spirit of their religion 
and civilization has kept alive a considerable degree of 
industry and commerce, and saved that country from the 
desolation which exists in other Mahometan countries. 

Human reasoning of much depth and power must start 
from a theological or metaphysical standpoint, or be 
based on the phenomena of nature and its laws. Mahom- 
etanism contains a few dogmas concerning the unity of 
God, predestination and fate ; but nothing that is worthy 
of the name of a system of theology, metaphysics, or 
philosophy. In this respect the Koran and the writings 
of Mahometan authors are greatly inferior to Brahminism, 
Buddhism, and the works of Confucius. The Mahometans 
have no native literature, learning, or science of much 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 231 

value, to occupy and give activity to the minds of the 
people, of even the educated classes. 

The Koran and the doctrines and usages of Mahomet- 
anism imbue the minds of the people with a certain class 
of fixed ideas, form peculiar channels of thought, and 
produce the most torpid and immobile state of mind and 
of society (in time of peace), which ever existed on earth. 
Hence Mussulmen are generally beyond the influence of 
Christian civilization ; beyond the reasoning of Christian 
nations, upon almost all subjects ; and beyond the pale 
of improvement and progress. Progress can be made 
under Buddhism, and under the philosophy of Confucius ; 
but it is impossible under the depressing influences of 
Mahometanism. 

Mahometanism gives a religious sanction to polygamy, 
degrades women to the condition of slaves and concu- 
bines, and effectually excludes them from general society. 
There is no promiscuous social intercourse between the 
sexes in Mahometan countries ; and nothing that can be 
properly called society, in the European and American 
sense of the term. Social intercourse between the sexes 
is confined to the family, and to near relatives within the 
domestic circle ; and even between females, it is confined 
to very narrow limits. Females do not even attend public 
prayers in the mosques. 

Mahometan populations have no amusements outside 
of the family circle, in which females participate with 
males ; and very few of any kind. They have no balls, 
nor assemblies for dancing ; no theatres ; no concerts of 
music ; no circuses ; no horse-shows, trotting-matches, 
nor agricultural fairs ; no panoramas ; no lyceum, library, 
or lecture associations ; no popular addresses, or celebra- 
tions ; no public festivals ; and no social parties of both 
sexes. Ambition to dress, and to appear to advantage 
in society, at church, and in public places, and to have 
elegant furniture and fine equipages, constitute strong 
incitements to industry, in Christian countries. Mahom- 
etan populations are almost destitute of any such stimuli 
to thought and industry. 

There is no animating principle or germ of action in 
the Mahometan system which serves to awaken the ener- 



232 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

gies and give activity to the minds of the people. On 
the contrary, all tends (in time of peace) to induce quiet 
individual enjoyment, without much effort of either body 
or mind. There is, and can be, under such a system, 
very little industry, and no great enterprise or improve- 
ment, except what originates with the sovereign. Many 
tracts of land and districts of country within the present 
jurisdiction of Mahometan nations, formerly inhabited 
and productive, were devastated and depopulated by con- 
quering armies and military hordes several centuries 
since — the timber and trees cut down, buildings and 
fences, dams, canals, and ditches for irrigating purposes 
destroyed — and they became desolate, and in some in- 
stances sandy deserts ; and the desolation continues to 
this day — without any efforts being made to plant and 
grow trees and timber (as is customary in many countries 
of Europe), or to make other improvements — to fit the 
lands again for occupancy and cultivation. 



Sec. 2. The Ottoman Empire, and its Inhabitants and 
Tributaries. 

There has never been a complete and accurate census 
taken of the population, or a survey made of any of the 
provinces of the Ottoman Empire ; and hence all the 
statements of the population are based on partial and 
imperfect enumerations, and official estimates. There 
was an imperfect census and official estimate made in 
the year 1844, which may be regarded as an approxima- 
tion to accuracy. The area in square miles is as variously 
estimated and uncertain as the population ; but a com- 
parison of estimates and statements contained in the 
Almanac de Gotha and other works, indicate that the 
area of Turkey in Europe, including Candia and other 
islands, comprises about 1 30,600 square miles — exclusive 
of the tributary states of Servia and Montenegro.* 



* Wallachia and Moldavia having established their independence, 
their area and population are stated in another chapter. 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 233 

OFFICIAL ESTIMATE OF THE POPULATION OF TURKEY IN 
EUROPE, MADE IN 1 844. 

Square Miles. Population. 

Edirne (Ancient Thrace), .... 9,500 1,800,000 

Bulgaria (four governments), .... 38,900 3,000,000 

Salanik and Yanina (parts of Macedonia, Thes- 

saly, and Albania), 28,450 2,700,000 

Scodra, or Scutari, Perserin and Roumelia 

(parts of Albania), . . . . . 18,850 1,200,000 

Bosnia, Croatia, and Herzegovina, . . . 22,400 1,100,000 

Crete, or Candia, the Islands of the Archi- 
pelago, and Southern Thrace, . . 12,500 700,000 



1 30,600 1 o, 500,000 

The tributary principality of Servia, . . 22,500 100,000 

" " Montenegro, . . 1,900 130,000 



Total Turkey in Europe, . 155,000 10,730,000 

About two millions of the inhabitants are supposed to 
be Turks, and 70,000 Jews. The whole number that 
profess Mahometanism, including the Turks and all the 
proselytes they have made among the ancient inhabitants, 
do not exceed 4,500,000 ; while the Greek, Armenian, 
and Catholic Christians exceed 7,000,000. 

The area and population of Turkey in Asia are only 
estimates — still more uncertain than those of Turkey in 
Europe. They are stated in the Almanac de Gotha 
nearly as follows : 

Square Miles. Population. 

Asia Minor and the Island of Cyprus, . .207,000 10,700,000 

Armenia and Koordistan, .... 120,000 1,700,000 

Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia, . . 145,000 2,750,000 

Part of Arabia, 192,000 900,000 



Total, . . . . . . . . 664,000 16,050,000 

Malte-Brun in his Geography estimates the population 
of Turkey in Asia much less — as follows : Anatolia, five 
millions ; Armenia, two ; Koordistan, one ; the Pashalics 
of Bagdad, Mosul, and Diarbekir, one and a half; and 
Syria, two millions. Total, 11,500,000. They are stated 
in the Annuaire de U Economie Politique et de La Stat- 
istique for 1 S66 as follows : 

In Turkey in Asia, Syria, and Arabia, exclusive of the 

tributary countries, .... . . 13,430,000 



234 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 



Of whom the Mussulmen of all sects, including 4,500,000 

Ottoman Turks, number 9,050,000 

The Christians of all communions, .... 4,300,000 

And the Jews, 80,000 

The Cyclopaedia of Geography, by Charles Knight, 
London, classifies the inhabitants of Turkey in Asia ac- 
cording to their race and religious faith as follows : 



Ottomans (Mussulmen), 

Greeks (Christians), 

Armenians (Christians), 

Koords (mostly Mahometans), 

Arabs, " ' « 

Tartars and Turkomans (Mahometans), 

Roman Catholics, .... 

Jews, 

Druses, Syrians, and other races, . 



10,500,000 

1,000,000 

2,000,000 

1,000,000 

900,000 

100,000 

260,000 

80,000 

210,000 



Total, 16,050,000 

There has been some increase of population during the 
last forty years, in Wallachia and Moldavia, Servia and 
Bulgaria ; and there is reason to believe that the large 
predominance of Christian populations, and the progress 
of improvement in the neighboring Christian countries, 
have had an influence, and that there has been some in- 
crease of industry and population also, in all the western 
and northern provinces of Turkey in Europe ; but none 
whatever in Turkey in Asia. 

Sec. 3. Climate, Natural Resources, and Condition of 
Turkey iii Europe. 

Turkey in Europe, exclusive of its islands, has a range 
of more than six degrees of latitude, from below the 39th 
to above the 45th parallel ; and having numerous moun- 
tains, plains, and valleys, of various grades of elevation 
above the sea. it has a considerable variety of climate. 
All the provinces and parts of the country (except some 
of the highest mountain ranges) enjoy a temperate and 
good climate. Some portions of the country have a 
climate very similar to that of northern Italy and eastern 
France ; while other parts have about the same mean 
temperature as southern Austria. There is much snow 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 2$$ 

in some parts in winter ; a good supply of rain, in the 
course of the year, in all the provinces ; and reasonable 
rains, even in summer, in all the provinces, except Thrace 
and Roumelia, which often need the benefits of irrigation. 
The climate is so moist as to render vegetation generally 
abundant ; forests are still numerous and large in the 
highlands ; the country is generally well and abundantly 
supplied with wood and timber ; and the western prov- 
inces have considerable to spare. 

Turkey in Europe abounds in rivers and creeks, springs 
and brooks ; and is a well-watered country. It is blessed 
with several navigable rivers and watercourses ; with a 
large extent of sea-coast, with numerous bays, gulfs, and 
fine harbors ; with numerous mill-streams, and a large 
amount of available water-power, for mechanical and 
manufacturing purposes. It has very generally a good 
soil — good for grains of various kinds, and for cultivated 
grasses, fruits, and vegetables, except the mountain lands, 
which are valuable for grazing, as well as for wood and 
timber. 

Turkey in Europe abounds in iron ore, has some cop- 
per and other metals, and also coal, and numerous quar- 
ries of stone and marble ; but the mines have been very 
little worked, and the quantity of iron produced and used 
is very small. The agricultural resources of the country 
are very great, and the mineral resources are great also ; 
the forests are valuable, and the natural facilities for com- 
merce and navigation are equal to those of any country 
in the world. It has all the natural elements of wealth 
and progress in the aggregate, in as great abundance 
perhaps, in proportion to its area, as any country in the 
world, except Great Britain ; and if it were inhabited by 
such a people as the English or the French, the Germans 
or the Chinese, it might furnish fields of employment, 
and the means of subsistence, for a population of twenty- 
five or thirty millions of inhabitants, and perhaps more. 
I mean if it were occupied by such a people as an inde- 
pendent nation — with revenue laws, and laws for the 
regulation of commerce, calculated to promote domestic 
industry and prosperity — and not in the condition of a 
British colony, subject to a colonial system — stifling its 



236 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

industry, to make it a market for the products of the 
factories and workshops, and the mines of Great Britain. 
While Turkey in Europe has all the natural elements 
of wealth and progress classified in chapter 22, it has 
very few of the artificial elements there enumerated. Its 
post-office department is very limited in its sphere of 
action ; it has very few post-offices ; no post-coaches, 
nor regular ''transmission of mails; very few bridges, 
and very few roads fit for wheeled carriages or common 
wagons. Nearly all the interior transportation is done 
upon pack-horses, mules, and camels. All the expendi- 
tures made by the government for improvements, are for 
palaces and other public buildings and mosques, and for 
forts and arsenals and military roads. Very little is ever 
expended for roads — for agricultural or commercial pur- 
poses ; nothing for canals, or the improvement of the 
navigation of rivers ; nothing for railroads prior to the 
year i860, and very little since. 

Sec. 4. Climate, Natural Resources, and Condition of 
Turkey in Asia. 

Turkey in Asia comprises many countries, and is very 
large. Exclusive of the desert of Syria, and the portion 
of Arabia included in it, it is more than twice as large as 
France ; and embraces a much greater variety of climate 
than any country of Europe. The southern half of it — 
including Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia, and part of 
Asia Minor — is much warmer and drier than any part of 
Turkey in Europe ; the summers being often almost des- 
titute of rain, and the country refreshed only by dews, 
which are generally heavy. 

The most of Asia Minor, Armenia, and the country 
watered by the head- waters and tributaries of the Euphra- 
tes and Tigris, may be regarded as well supplied with 
small rivers and rivulets, springs and brooks, and as well- 
watered countries. There are numerous mountains and 
mountain ranges also in those regions, the sides of which 
are generally covered with wood and timber. They aid 
in making the climate moist and cool. In ancient times, 
before the forests of Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia 



-MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 23/ 

were destroyed, and when irrigation was very generally 
practised, the falls of rain and snow were much greater, 
the climate moister, and the lands more productive both 
for grain and pasturage, than they have been for cen- 
turies past. 

The greatest part of all the countries of Turkey in Asia 
(except the part of Arabia embraced in it), has been, at 
some period of the world's history, well cultivated, and 
supported a large population. Much of it was irrigated 
by means of expensive dams and reservoirs, canals and 
ditches, which are now in ruins. Many portions of it, 
once productive, are now desert wastes. If it were im- 
proved as well as China is, the mountain and hill-sides 
terraced, and large portions of the hill-sides and valleys 
irrigated, trees planted, and wood and timber cultivated 
and preserved, the climate would become more moist, 
the lands generally more productive, and Turkey in Asia 
might sustain fifty or sixty millions of inhabitants, much 
better than it does now fifteen or sixteen millions. 

Many portions of Turkey in Asia were ravaged by 
numerous wars and military hordes, between the year 
600 of the Christian era, and the beginning of the 15th 
century ; when nearly all of it came under the dominion 
of the Turks. To the destructive effect of those wars 
the dilapidation and decay of nearly four centuries have 
been added — with no new erections of much account, 
except in the cities, where property is better protected 
than it is in the country. Almost all expensive agri- 
cultural improvements for purposes of irrigation, have 
fallen to decay, and sunk to ruin. Turkey in Asia is as 
desolate at this day as it was at the end of the Crusades — 
though it has been less disturbed and exhausted by wars ' 
than any country of Europe, for many centuries past. 

Sec. 5. Government of Turkey, and Civil and Social 
State of the People. 

The Koran and the Mahometan religion are not con- 
sistent with any system of government but a theocratic 
monarchy — uniting the three characteristics of an eccle- 
siastical, military, and civil despotism. Such is the govern- 



238 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

ment of the Turkish empire. It is essentially a military 
despotism, and fitted for a warlike people only. It is not 
adapted to an industrial people, nor to the arts of peace. 
The people have no participation in it — not even in the 
election of their own local and municipal officers. Having 
no code of laws — nothing but the Koran and a few rude 
usages and customs — the people are subject to the arbi- 
trary rule of their local as well as general officers ; and 
there is no uniformity in the levy of taxes. The govern- 
ment having no judicial department, with power to pro- 
tect the people from the arbitrary acts of officials, there 
is no safety for either person or property. 

The government of Turkey forms a very striking con- 
trast, in some respects, with the imperial government of 
China, as well as with that of France. In China, the 
power of the government is without limit, except ancient 
customs, which it would be dangerous for the Emperor 
to change or disregard ; but it is in some measure patri- 
archal — pursuing a peace policy, and adapted to the arts 
of peace ; and has a full code of laws — prescribing not 
only the rights and duties of the citizen, and the mode 
of levying taxes, but also prescribing and limiting the 
powers of public officers, and their modes of procedure. 
There is really nothing to restrain the Emperor of 
France, any more than the Sultan of Turkey — except 
custom, an enlightened public opinion, and a charter 
granted by himself ; but the people and the officials, ex- 
cept the Emperor, are governed by a written constitu- 
tion and a very complete and good code of laws ; the 
people enjoy a very large participation in the legislative, 
administrative, and judicial departments of the govern- 
ment ; they elect the most of their own local and muni- 
cipal officers ; and the judicial department of the govern- 
ment has power to protect them from the arbitrary and 
illegal acts of public officers ; taxes are levied and col- 
lected, and everything done according to law. It is, in 
fact, a government of law ; and not like Turkey, a 
government of arbitrary power. 

The people of Turkey having no participation whatever 
in making laws or administering the government ; no 
popular elections ; no political excitements ; seldom any 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 239 

religious exercises except individual prayer ; no public 
amusements or festivals ; no literary societies or popular 
lectures ; no general social intercourse ; and rarely any 
such thing as a newspaper — a Turkish community has 
very little activity, and presents nothing to keep the 
mind from sinking into a passive and stagnant condition. 

And yet, Mahometanism presents some compensation 
for its evils. The people are exempt from social drink- 
ing and drunkenness ; from gambling, and gambling 
speculations in stocks, merchandise, and real estate ; 
from fashionable vices, and an excessive indulgence in 
fashionable amusements ; and prostitution, other than 
legalized concubinage, is very rare among them. Of all 
the peoples in the world, the Mahometans are the most 
sedate, contented, and quiet, and regular and domestic in 
their habits. In some respects, Christian nations might 
learn wisdom from their example. Their virtues, how- 
ever, are nearly all of a negative character. 

The foregoing remarks, so far as they relate to» the 
manners, customs, and characteristics of the people, ap- 
ply only to the Mahometans, and not to the Greeks, 
Armenians, and other Christian sects, nor to the Jews ; 
all of whom are tolerated (to a limited extent) in the 
exercise of their religious opinions and worship ; and 
have manners and customs very different from the Turks 
and Arabs. 



Sec. 6. The Means of Education, and of acquiring 
Knowledge and Information, defective. 

Education, knowledge, and active habits, constitute 
germs and springs of human action. The industrial and 
social habits of an intelligent people, constitute powerful 
means of educating and developing the faculties of the 
rising generation. The Turks, having but few schools, 
very few newspapers, and no other periodicals ; very few 
books and libraries ; no political discussions nor popular 
lectures ; seldom any preaching or exposition of the 
Koran and the doctrines of Mahometanism ; no agricul- 
tural fairs, and no public exhibitions or amusements ; 
very few mails, and no railroads to facilitate travel and 



240 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

give the people opportunities to see both city and coun- 
try, and to learn by observation — the middle classes as 
well as the poor, have very limited means of education, 
and of acquiring knowledge and information of any kind. 

The people are generally destitute of any information 
of the common occurrences of the day, in their own 
country as well as in other countries-— for want of an 
efficient post-office department, regular mails, an active 
press, and other means of diffusing knowledge and intel- 
ligence. They are dependent mostly upon the govern- 
ment for information ; and there is no such thing as 
public opinion to check abuses of power and the tyranny 
of officials. The people are isolated, and obliged to act 
in ignorance and without concert in resisting abuses of 
power, or submit to all the tyranny of the government, 
and the rapacity of its officers. 

The deficiencies of Mahometan populations in all these 
particulars, and the condition of females, may account for 
their indolence, torpid state of mind in time of peace, and 
the stagnant and dilapidated condition of the Turkish 
empire, and of all Mahometan countries. 

Sec 7. Modes of Living, and Religions Sects. 

There are some wandering Gypsies, but no wandering 
shepherds in Turkey in Europe. The people live by 
agriculture, and other industrial pursuits, as they do in 
other countries of Europe. The greatest part of the 
people of Turkey in Asia also have fixed habitations, and 
live by cultivating the earth, and other industrial pur- 
suits ; but the Koords, Turkomans, and Arabs, are gen- 
erally wandering nomads, dwelling in tents, having no 
fixed habitations nor individual property in lands, and 
live mostly upon the products of their flocks, and by 
robbery. Many of them drive their flocks in summer 
into the most elevated situations, to pasture upon the 
tops and sides of the mountains ; and as winter ap- 
proaches, they return with them into the lower and shel- 
tered plains and valleys. 

The Christians of Turkey in Europe mostly adhere to 
the Greek Church, which numbers about 9,600,000, the 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 24 1 

Armenians 400,000, and the Catholics 640,000, while the 
Mahometans of all races do not exceed 4,500,000. There 
are also about 70,000 Jews and 200,000 Gypsies. 

The Christians of Turkey in Asia are mostly Greeks 
and Armenians ; but some of them are Nestorians, about 
200,000 are Catholics, and 120,000 are Maronites. The 
Jews number about 80,000. 

Not only the Christian world, but the Mahometans 
also, are divided into sects ; though the subdivisions of the 
latter are few when compared with those of the former. 

The Caliphs Abubekir, Omar, and Othman, the three 
immediate successors of the prophet, were elected in op- 
position to Ali, his son-in-law, who was the fourth Caliph 
elected. The followers of Ali stigmatized Abubekir, 
Omar, and Othman, as usurpers, added an article to the 
creed of the Moslems, and gave rise to the sect known as 
Shiites. The original creed was, " There is but one God, 
and Mahomet is his prophet" to which they added, "and 
Ali is the vicar of God? 

Omar and Othman were assassinated by factious ene- 
mies ; the elevation of Ali soon excited two formidable 
revolts, and involved the Moslems in bloody civil wars 
for six years, when Ali was assassinated a.d. 661. The 
successors of Ali repudiated as heretical the new article 
added to the creed ; recognized the traditions of the 
sayings and doings of the prophet, and the usages which 
grew up under his administration, as practical interpre- 
tations, as well as additions to the Koran, and of nearly 
the same validity as the Koran itself. By giving force 
to traditions, they added to the laws and doctrines by 
which the Mahometan world was to be governed, and 
originated a sect, known as Sunnites. The Sunnites are 
subdivided into several sects or schools — professing doc- 
trines differing in some particulars. 

The Persians repudiated the traditions, adhered to the 
creed of Ali, and became Shiites ; while the Turks, the 
most of the Arabs, and the Moslems of Africa became 
Sunnites ; and hence the implacable hatred between the 
Turks and the Persian Moslems. 

The Turks are Sunnites ; but there are several heret- 
ical sects of Moslems in Turkey in Asia. There are 

11 



242 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

about 200,000 Druses, dwelling in the mountainous dis- 
tricts of Syria and Palestine, who differ widely from both 
the Shiites and Sunnites. There is a small tribe called 
Motoualis, who are Shiites, and most bigoted Mahome- 
tans ; and also a heretical tribe called Ansarians. These 
heretical tribes dwell in the mountains, are very turbu- 
lent, acknowledge only a nominal subjection to the Sul- 
tan, are nearly independent, and often very troublesome. 
The Wahabites are confined to Arabia. 

Sectarian creeds and schisms have engendered among 
Mahometans as strong prejudices, implacable hatreds, 
violent animosities, and bloody civil wars, as they have 
in Christian nations ; though their influence has not been 
so extensive and disastrous with the former as among 
the latter. 

Previous to the year 1856 the laws of Turkey imposed 
the penalty of death upon any Mahometan of Turkish 
birth who renounced the religion of his ancestors, and 
became a Christian or a Jew ; but through the influence 
of Christian nations, the Sultan in that year issued a de- 
cree or ordinance, by which he abolished that penalty, 
and gave to all persons, of whatever birth, liberty to em- 
brace any religion they may choose. That ordinance 
and others, securing toleration to Christians and Jews, 
is generally well executed in Turkey in Europe, where 
the Mahometans are in the minority ; but such are the 
violent prejudices and jealousies of the Moslems towards 
Christians, that it is difficult to execute such ordinances 
in many parts of Turkey in Asia, where the lives of some 
Christians, Christian missionaries, and converted Turks, 
have been sacrificed by Moslem mobs. 

The power of Christian governments frequently mani- 
fested during the last century, in their victories over the 
Turks; in the aid given by England and France to the 
Greeks during their struggle for independence ; in the 
exhibition of great and well-armed vessels of war, in the 
Bosphortis and other Turkish waters ; and in the manly 
advice and remonstrances of their ambassadors at the 
Ottoman court, have, in some measure, overawed the 
Turks, and had a great influence over them, as well as 
over the Sultan and his government ; and that influence 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 243 

is increasing. There is reason to believe also that the 
Sultan must have learned something during his recent 
visit to the World's Fair, at Paris, and to France and 
England, Germany and Austria, which will lead to some 
salutary reforms in the Ottoman Empire. 

Sec 8. Productive Industry of Turkey. 

There is considerable agricultural industry among the 
Christian populations of Turkey in Europe, and Turkey 
in Asia also ; and some among the Mahometans ; but 
their implements and their methods are generally primi- 
tive and rude — mostly such as were in use two thousand 
years ago. They have no knowledge, and have had no 
means of acquiring a knowledge, of modern agricultural 
science. 

Their manufactures are few and simple, without ma- 
chinery, and with very primitive implements. They 
include, however, some silk goods, beautiful shawls, fine 
carpets, embroidery, and some other nice articles — 
wrought by hand. They have mines of iron, and some 
other metals, in abundance in Turkey in Europe, and 
some in Turkey in Asia ; but they are very little worked. 
The aggregate amount of the mining, mechanical, and 
manufacturing industry of the Turkish empire is very 
small, when compared with the industrial nations of 
Europe. All are in a very low state, for various reasons, 
among which the following are the most prominent : 

1st. The indolence of the Moslems, the want of scien- 
tific mechanics and engineers, and of skilled workmen. 

2d. Their ignorance of the inventions, mechanical instru- 
ments, and machinery now in use in Europe and America. 

3d. The defects in the government and laws, and in the 
administration of justice ; and the insecurity of property. 

4th. The want of roads and facilities for commerce. 

5th. The want of a sound national policy, to encourage 
the introduction and pursuit of such branches of industry 
as are adapted to the country. 

The people are generally poor — very poor, and live in 
a coarse and rude manner ; particularly in Turkey in 
Asia. Nothing but the mildness of the climate of almost 



244 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

every part of Turkey in Asia, enables the people to sub- 
sist upon so small means. Their poverty, want of the 
comforts of life, exposure to the weather, and want of 
cleanliness, have produced so high rates of mortality, as 
to prevent an increase of the population in almost every 
province, for many centuries past — even in time of peace. 
There are no data from which to estimate their agricul- 
tural, mechanical, and manufacturing, or their mining in- 
dustry, with much accuracy, as there are in the United 
States, Great Britain, France, and some other countries 
of Europe ; but their condition and commerce indicate 
that the aggregate productive industry of Turkey in Asia, 
in proportion to the number of inhabitants, is not more 
than one-fifth part as large as that of the United States, 
Great Britain, or France ; and that the industry of Turkey 
in Europe is not more than a third or two-fifths as much 
in proportion to the population, as that of either of those 
countries. And yet, the advocates for free-trade cannot 
pretend that Turkey, or its industry, has been oppressed 
by protective tariffs. On the contrary, much of the in- 
dustry of the people, formerly employed in spinning and 
weaving by hand, has been undermined and destroyed by 
the importation of foreign fabrics, under a three per cent, 
tariff — without any compensating advantages to other 
branches of industry. 

Sec. 9. Commerce of Turkey. 

Trade and commerce constitute the life-blood of in- 
dustry ; and the amount of the trade and commerce of a 
country is a good index of its industry, condition, and 
prosperity. Internal trade and commerce, however, are 
of more consequence to the prosperity of a country than 
foreign commerce. This is shown in the prosperity of 
the empires of China and Japan. 

The government of Turkey seems to regard commerce 
as of little consequence, and pays very little attention to 
it. Imports are subject to a nominal duty of only three 
per cent., which yields but little more than sufficient to 
pay the revenue officers, and the expenses of collection. 
The official reports of imports and exports at all the ports 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 245 

are not collected and published annually by the govern- 
ment, as they are in the United States and in European 
countries ; and hence it is difficult to ascertain the entire 
exports and imports of the Turkish empire, for any 
one year— though they are often published for some of 
the principal ports. 

The imports of foreign goods into the three principal 
ports of the empire — to wit, Constantinople, Smyrna, and 
Trebizond, for the year 1 860 — are stated in the New Amer- 
ican Cyclopaedia (title Turkey) at "$75,502,317. Of this 
trade Great Britain has the largest share, exporting to 
Turkey in 1858 about $50,000,000 worth, and receiving 
from that country about $39,000,000. The exports from 
Turkey to the United States in i860 were $1,041,959, 
and the imports about $420,000." 

The foreign commerce of Turkey in Europe and Tur- 
key in Asia, for the year 1843, 1S stated in the Annuaire 
de LEconomie Politique et de la Statisque, published at 
Paris for the year 1866^ upon the authority of M. Dofour, 
as follows : — 



Imports into Turkey from Great Britain, and its colonies — 

Cotton goods and yarn, ... 80 millions "} Francs. 

Coal, 7.5 do ( ■ 

Iron,' i.s do ^30,000,000 

Other goods, . . . . . 41.0 do J 

From France- 
Silk goods, 15 do "I 

Cotton do 12 do 

Woollen do 1 c do 

Leather do 5 do \ 90,000,000 

Jewelry, Plate, Watches, &c, . . 9 do 

Other goods, . . . . . 34 do J 

From Switzerland — 

Cotton and silk goods, 10,000,000 

Moldavia and Wallachia, 8,000,000 

From Germany and Austria — 

Woollen goods, . . . . . 15 millions"] 

Cotton goods, 3 do 

Toys and trinkets, . . . . 4 do f 32,000,000 

Other merchandise, . . . . 10 do J 

From Holland — 

Diamonds, 20 do ~\ 

Coffee and Sugar, .... 7 do I 30,000,000 

Flour, tobacco, etc., . « . . 3 do J 



246 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 



From Belgium — 



Millions 
3 do 



Francs. 
000 



Woollen goods, 

Arms, 1 do 

Glass, leather, etc., .... 2 do 

From Italy 6,000,000 

" Greece 3,000,000 

" Russia, 10,000,000 



]• 6,ooo,< 



America, 



10,000,000 



Total, • 335,000,000 

Equal to about $63,000,000 

The exports from Turkey for the same year, are stated 
as follows : 



Raw silk and silk goods, 


69,662,000 francs 


Cotton, ...... 


206,833,000 do 


Wool, carpets, and shawls, 


58,262,000 do 


Hides and skins, .... 


21,300,000 do 


Wheat and other grain, . 


60,990,000 do 


Tobacco, 


28,125,000 do 


Oleaginous seeds, .... 


*. . 33,687,000 do 


Opium, scammony, and saffron, 


9,842,000 do 


Dried fruits, 


29,230,000 do 


Olives and olive oil, 


23,200,000 do 


Wines, 


4,375,°°° d° 


Diverse woods, .... 


6,050,000 do 


Other articles, .... 


34>594>°°° do 


Total exports, .... 


586,150,000 francs 


Equal to nearly .... 


$110,000,000 



The exports from Egypt were stated at 990,120,000 
francs, and those from Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia 
at 93,176,562 francs. 

The declared value of British and Irish products and 
manufactures exported from the United Kingdom to Tur- 
key, during the year 1865, is stated in the Companion to 
the British Almanac for 1867 as follows : 

To European Turkey, £4,931,742 

" Asia Minor, 695,377 

" Syria and Palestine, . . . . . . 1,339,665 

" El Hedjaz and Persian Gulf, . . . . . 21,947 



Total to Turkey, £6,988,631 

Equal to about . . $33>75°,°oo 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 247 

Nearly $9,500,000 more than is stated by M. Dufour 
for 1863. 

The productive industry of Turkey for the year 1863, is 
estimated in the Annuaire at two thousand and five hun- 
dred millions of francs — equal to only about $470,000,000 
for 32,000,000 of inhabitants ; less than fifteen dollars for 
each person. If that estimate be correct, the amount for 
each person in Turkey in Asia cannot exceed ten dollars, 
and that for Turkey in Europe, twenty dollars ; for the 
latter is probably about twice as much as the former. 
Notwithstanding the extreme poverty and destitution of 
nine-tenths of the people of Turkey, it seems incredible 
that they should subsist on so trifling a sum ; and the 
probability is, that the productive industry of Turkey in 
Asia (including the produce of their herds), must be equal 
to fifteen dollars for each person, and twice that amount 
in Turkey in Europe — making an aggregate of about 
$712,000,000 annually, including Servia. 

Commerce is carried on in Turkey in a very primitive 
manner, for cash or ready pay — without credits, or the 
necessity of keeping accounts. The foreign imports are 
mostly cloths of various kinds, leather and shoes, glass 
and earthenware, various manufactures of metals, coffee, 
and sugar. As their domestic manufactures are trifling 
in amount, they need five times as many goods as they 
import ; and their imports are limited only by their ability 
to pay — that is, by the value of the products they can 
spare to export, which are wanted by other nations. 
Their exports are mostly agricultural products, which are 
wanted by the manufacturing nations of Europe ; and if 
their employments were much more diversified, and do- 
mestic as well as foreign commerce active, they could 
find markets (partly at home and partly abroad) for four 
times as much as they now produce, and their wants 
would be supplied accordingly. 

Manufacturing nations have a greater diversity of em- 
ployments, a much greater amount of industry in the ag- 
gregate, and more active and extensive internal as well 
external commerce, than nations confined mostly to agri- 
culture. The small amount of the exports and imports 
of Turkey attests the small amount of the industry of the 



248 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

people, and their poverty also. Their exports amount 
annually to only about three and one-third dollars for 
each person ; while the exports from the United States 
of the growth, produce, and manufactures thereof, aver- 
age more than ten dollars for each person ; those of 
France are about fifteen dollars for each person ; and 
those of Great Britain and Ireland have swollen to more 
than twenty-five dollars annually for each person. What 
pictures and contrasts such facts exhibit ! Would it be 
possible to diversify the employments of Turkey, and to 
build up manufactures, under a three per cent, tariff upon 
foreign fabrics ? 

Sec. 10. Taxation and Revenues of Turkey. 

The ordinary annual revenues of Turkey, according to 
Ubicini, before the independence of Wallachia and Mol- 
davia was established, amounted to ,£6,724,000 sterling, 
derived from tithes, land-tax, poll-tax, customs duties, in- 
direct taxes or licenses, ,£276,000 tribute from Egypt, 
.£18,400 tribute from Servia, the same amount from 
Wallachia, and .£9,000 from Moldavia. 

The capitation, or poll-tax, is imposed on the Christian 
population, and on the Jews and other inhabitants deemed 
infidels ; but not on the Moslems. It is often very op- 
pressive ; and the collection of tithes, and the arbitrary 
exactions connected with it, operate still more oppres- 
sively upon agriculture. The most of the taxes fall on 
lands and agricultural industry, and have" a tendency to 
depress industry. Trade, commerce, and luxurious living, 
are almost exempt from taxation. 

The taxes in the aggregate do not produce much reve- 
nue — considerably less than one dollar to each inhabitant ; 
and less than one-tenth part the amount collected from 
the people of the United States, Great Britain, France, 
and several other countries of Europe. The small amount 
of revenue collected in Turkey, and the difficulty of col- 
lecting it, attest the poverty of the people, and the small 
amount of their productive industry. 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 249 

Sec. 11. History and Probable Destiny of the Turkish 
Empire. 

The empire of the Saracens was declining and crum- 
bling to pieces by reason of successful invasions, internal 
dissensions and revolts, during a period of five hundred 
years — when it was finally terminated, in the year 1258, 
by the conquest of Bagdad by the Mongol Tartars. That 
event, and the termination of the Crusades, left the few 
remaining Asiatic provinces of the Eastern empire, at 
peace for a few years. 

In the year 1299, Othman, a Turkish chieftain of a 
small clan of about 400 families, invaded the province of 
Bithynia, which is bounded on the west by the Bospho- 
rus and Sea of Marmora, and on the north by the Black 
Sea. His first invasion was a mere plundering expedi- 
tion ; but his success induced thousands of volunteers to 
flock to his standard, until he collected a large force. 
He conquered one city, fortress, and district after an- 
other ; remained in the country, and held dominion over 
his conquests ; the whole province submitted to his arms 
during his reign ; he laid the foundations of the Ottoman 
or Turkish empire, and at his death in 1326, he trans- 
mitted his dominions to his son Orchan. 

Such was the distraction and weakness of the empire 
of the Greeks, and the religious and military enthusiasm 
and energy of the Turks, that Othman and his successors 
were favored with a continued succession of victories 
during the whole of the 14th century. In a few years they 
reduced to subjection all the Asiatic provinces of the East- 
ern, or Greek empire ; in 1352 they entered Europe ; in 
1360 they took the city of Adrianople ; from 1352 to 1400 
they overran the most of the European provinces of the 
empire, and besieged Constantinople ; when Bajazet, the 
Turkish Sultan, was defeated and taken prisoner, at the 
battle of Angora, in 1402, by Timour, or Tamerlane, the 
great Tartar conqueror of that period. By reason, however, 
of the generosity of Timour, and his death soon afterwards, 
his great victory over the Turks put only a temporary check 
to their progress and victories. But the death of Bajazet, 
and the civil wars between his sons, gave the Greeks a 



250 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

respite from hostilities of about twenty years, when the 
Turks again besieged Constantinople in 1422. They 
took that city by storm in the year 1453, and thus put 
an end to the Eastern empire. 

In 1458 they subjected Greece, and took the Crimea 
soon afterwards. In 1480 they penetrated into Italy, 
and spread terror throughout Europe; in 15 14 they 
captured the Islands of the Archipelago ; in 15 15 they 
overran and subjected Syria and Palestine; in 15 16 
they conquered Egypt ; in 1520 the Moslems of Algiers 
sought their aid to defend them from the attacks of 
the Spaniards, and submitted to their authority ; in 
1521 they took the city of Belgrade; in 1522 they 
took the Island of Rhodes ; in 1529 they were repulsed 
before the city of Vienna, which was the first repulse 
they had met with of any consequence, in more than a 
century. In 1538 they conquered Arabia; in 1551 
they took Tripoli ; in 157 1 they took the Island of Cy- 
prus ; in 1574 they subjected Tunis ; in 1639, tnev to °k 
Bagdad from the Persians ; and in 1669 they subdued 
the Island of Crete, or Candia, after a siege of twenty- 
five years — which was the last of their important and 
permanent conquests. 

In October, 1 571, the combined fleets of Spain, of 
Venice, and of the Pope, achieved a decisive victory over 
the Turkish fleet, near the mouth of the Gulf of Lepanto. 
It was one of the greatest and bloodiest naval battles 
ever fought, and the first signal victory achieved over 
the Turks since the battle of Angora, in 1402, and it 
diffused joy throughout Christendom. It nearly de- 
stroyed the naval power of the Turks, and checked the 
rapidity of their progress, though they were successful 
in many subsequent wars. In 1664 they were defeated 
in Hungary ; in 1683 they were severely repulsed a 
second time, before the walls of Vienna; in 1687 the 
Venetians took from them Lepanto, Athens, and Corinth 
— which were retaken by the Turks in 171 5. In 1736 
the Russians took Azof from the Turks, and ravaged 
the Crimea; in 1769 the Russians defeated the Turks, 
and the following year they destroyed the Turkish navy ; 
and in 1783 the Russians took the Crimea from the 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 25 1 

Turks. The great Greek insurrection commenced in 
1 82 1 ; the insurgents achieved several victories over the 
Turks; the combined fleets of England and France ob- 
tained a great victory over them at Navarino, in 1827 ; 
and the independence of Greece was acknowledged by 
the Turks in 1828. France attacked Algiers in 1827, 
and achieved the conquest of that country, 1 830-1 850. 
Since the conquest of Lower Egypt by Napoleon Bona- 
parte in 1798, the power of the Sultan of Turkey over 
Egypt, Tripoli, and Tunis has been but little more than 
nominal ; they pay the Sultan only a small tribute annu- 
ally. The Sultan has ceased to exercise any authority 
over the greatest part of Arabia, and the late provinces 
of Wallachia and Moldavia declared and established their 
independence in 1866. 

From the year 1420 to 1570 (a period of 150 years), they 
were the most warlike people then in the world, and the 
most uniformly successful in their wars and expeditions ; 
and during the whole of the 16th, 17th, and first half of 
the 1 8th century (from the year 1500 to 1750), their mili- 
tary power exceeded that of any kingdom or empire 
on the earth. After the conquest of Syria and Palestine, 
Arabia and Egypt, Tripoli and Algiers, the Sultans of 
Turkey reigned for two hundred and fifty years, over 
about fifty millions of inhabitants ; which was equal to 
half the population of Europe (exclusive of Turkey) 
during the sixteenth century, and nearly equal to three 
times the population of either France, Austria, Russia, or 
Great Britain and her colonies, in the year 1 700. (See Vol. 
I. pp. 550 and 551). All those countries have been increas- 
ing in population and industry, wealth and military power, 
for two centuries past ; while the positive power of the 
Sultan has been sinking for about a century, and was 
stationary for two centuries previously. 

The great naval victory over the Turks at Lepanto, in 
1 571, lessened their military enthusiasm and prestige of 
victory ; and their repulses "in Hungary, in 1664, at Vi- 
enna, in 1683, and the loss of Lepanto, Athens, and Cor- 
inth, in 1687, pretty much destroyed the self-delusion of 
their superiority to Christian nations, their belief in their 
own invincibility, and their enthusiasm for war. Those 



252 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

disastrous events, without materially lessening their do- 
minions or their positive power, showed them that their 
relative power was much less than it had been ; that 
they could no longer enrich themselves with plunder, 
nor maintain their military expeditions by plundering 
other nations ; and that the expenses of their future wars 
must be borne by taxing and imposing burdens upon 
their own people. Those events had a wonderful influ- 
ence in dampening the military spirit of the Sultan and 
his officers and people, in repressing their ardor for 
war, and in preserving the peace. 

Military power is now very generally dependent for 
success upon naval power — upon steamers and gun- 
boats — and upon ships and railroads for transportation. 
Money, mechanical power, and productive industry, now 
furnish the sinews of war. With all such means, and 
with all the modern appliances of war, the Turks are 
poorly supplied ; and their poverty will ever prevent them 
in future from waging war efficiently. Cavalry, which 
has been their most efficient force, is of little avail against 
modern rifles and sharp-shooters, rifled cannon and en- 
trenched camps, grape-shot and shell, and all the modern 
instruments of warfare. 

When the Turks were two or three times as strong as 
any nation of Europe or Western Asia (as was the case 
during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries), they could 
wage war with pretty certain success, plunder with impu- 
nity, and make plunder support their military expeditions ; 
but when the people of Austria and Russia each be- 
came so numerous that either could meet them in the 
field on about equal terms, an end was put to their 
conquests and plunder — and they soon sunk from a 
nation of valiant warriors to that of indolent and ineffi- 
cient citizens — the most of them becoming mere sensual 
drones. 

The same remarks apply to the Saracens, and to all 
Mahometan nations. The history of more than twelve 
centuries shows that Mahometanism unfits a people for 
peaceful industry, and tends to adapt them only to a pred- 
atory system of warfare. The principal bond of union 
and cause of the military successes of the Turks as well 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 253 

as the Saracens, was what John C. Calhoun once called 
the cohesive power of public plunder. 

Such is the character and condition of the Turks, and 
such are the tendencies of their religion and government. 
Their empire is crumbling to pieces before the influ- 
ences of modern Christian civilization ; the day is 
probably not far distant, when their government will 
be overturned, and their dominion will cease. It is 
not creditable to the Christian nations of Europe that 
by reason of their ambition, rivalships, and jealousies of 
each other, they have sustained the tyrannical, oppres- 
sive, and despicable dominion of the Turks, for more 
than half a century past, and have recently given to the 
oppressed Candians no substantial aid. 

It would not be for the interest of the nations of Eu- 
rope to allow Russia to extend her dominions over the 
Ottoman empire, but rather to overturn the government 
of the Turks and the Mahometan institutions of the 
country, to unite European Turkey with Greece, and 
establish an independent Christian constitutional mon- 
archy in Turkey in Asia, under a German prince. Ger- 
many is overpeopled, and the Germans need some 
country to colonize and occupy. France has got a 
foothold on the south shore of the Mediterranean, and 
has subjected and occupied Algiers, and will probably 
eventually subject and occupy all the Barbary States ; 
and if Germany could have Turkey in Asia, and Italy 
could have Egypt, all the great nations of Europe would 
have sufficient territory to colonize and occupy ; and all 
the Mahometan countries of much value (except Persia), 
would be subjected to Christian influences, and eventu- 
ally be Christianized. 

Sec. 12. Arabia. 

Arabia is a very large country, being over 1,400 miles 
in length from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean, 
and rom 500 to over 1,000 miles in width, having an 
area of about 1,100,000 square miles. It is more than five 
times as large as France. A strip along the Red Sea, 
about 1,000 miles in length, extending from the Medi- 



254 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

terranean to a point about 300 miles south of Mecca, is 
subject to the Sultan of Turkey. 

Malte-Brun estimated the population of Arabia at from 
ten to twelve millions ; and McCulloch estimated it at 
from twelve to fourteen millions — it is probably not more 
than twelve millions — including the portion subject to 
the Sultan of Turkey. 

There is a strip of low, sandy plains, but little above 
the sea, lying along the coasts of the Red Sea, Indian 
Ocean, and Persian Gulf, of from twenty to sixty miles 
in width. The interior is an elevated tableland with nu- 
merous mountains and elevated ridges — having a rainy 
and dry season annually. Nearly the whole of Arabia 
is an excessively arid country — parched with drought 
the most of the year. In fact, it seldom rains in the 
low country, or on the plains in the interior ; the most 
of which are mere deserts on account of their aridity 
■ — only the sides of the mountains, and the valleys 
which are supplied with water from the mountains, 
being productive. 

The heights of the mountains arrest the floating clouds 
and vapors, and the coolness of the atmosphere condenses 
the water into drops of rain, which often descends in abun- 
dance during the rainy season ; considerable water falls 
annually, in the mountains ; but not half enough to make 
Arabia a productive country. Springs fed by the annual 
rains are common in the mountains, which form brooks and 
rivulets that run through the valleys, and when swollen by 
rains, descend into the low lands ; but the most of them are 
soon lost in the sands — not more than ten or twelve of 
them reach the sea any portion of the year ; and only 
two small rivers run constantly into the Indian Ocean, 
and none into the Red Sea or Persian Gulf. The tem- 
porary currents of water from the mountains form lakes 
and ponds in the valleys and plains, make them produc- 
tive of grass for stock during a part of the year, and 
furnish the means of irrigating a considerable portion of 
the country. 

The mountains of Yemen, which lie in the' south- 
western part of Arabia, and also those of Oman, in the 
south-eastern part, are tolerably well supplied with rains ; 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 255 

which render a large proportion of those kingdoms or 
states quite productive for agricultural purposes — for the 
production of grains, fruits, and vegetables, as well as 
coffee. 

Owing to the extreme aridity of the climate, there is 
a great scarcity of wood and timber in all parts of Ara- 
bia — there being no dense forests, though there are scat- 
tering trees and thinly-wooded tracts on the sides of the 
mountains, and in the valleys along the streams. It has 
but few natural resources — the most of it consisting of 
naked rocks, and barren, sandy plains. Comparatively 
speaking, it is a worthless country, inhabited by a worth- 
less people. It has no navigable river ; no interior water- 
courses ; but few good harbors ; very little wood and 
timber ; no mines of much value ; but little land fit for 
cultivation without irrigation ; and not very much that 
can be irrigated — for want of rains and streams sufficient 
to furnish the water required for irrigation. 

The fact that there are neither water-mills nor wind- 
mills in Arabia, is significant. It shows the low state of 
the industrial arts — that they grind their grain by hand, 
or by animal power, and have no fine bolted flour. Nearly 
all their instruments and methods of industry are of a 
similar character — being the same that were used in that 
country 3,000 years ago. Under Mahometan rule, the 
people have seemed incapable of learning anything — 
even by borrowing from other nations. The Mahometan 
Moors of Spain, and the Saracens of Bagdad, under some 
of their Caliphs, were more tractable. 

Steam navigation and railroads, the great agents and 
handmaids of industry and commerce of the nineteenth 
century, cannot be used much in Arabia, for want of fuel. 
Nor can they, for the same reason, be used to any great 
extent in Persia, or any other interior country of Asia, 
in the States of Barbary, or in Southern Africa. 

Arabia is divided into numerous states and kingdoms, 
under the government of petty chiefs and princes, with- 
out any regular system of government, or any laws except 
those in the Koran, and a few rude customs. In Yemen 
and Oman the most of the people have fixed residences, 
individual property in lands, and live by agriculture and 



256 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

other employments ; but in the other states and districts 
the most of the inhabitants are wandering nomads, liv- 
ing in tents, mostly upon the milk and flesh of their 
flocks, and by plunder — very few giving any attention to 
the cultivation of the soil. They are generally miserably 
poor, and live abstemiously from necessity. 

The Arabs, generally, belonged to the sect of Sunnites 
until about the middle of the eighteenth century — when, 
under an enthusiastic reformer named Ebu Abdel Wahab, 
a new sect arose, which, in accordance with the principles- 
of the Koran, propagated its doctrines and reforms by the 
sword, until nearly all Arabia submitted to the Wahab- 
ites. In 181 1, Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, com- 
menced a war upon the Wahabites, and after a period of 
about twenty years of war and slaughter, he succeeded 
in driving them out of Western Arabia ; but they are 
believed to be numerous, and still strong in the interior, 
eastern, and southern parts of Arabia. - 

The natural resources of Arabia are too limited to 
support a very large population ; but under such a gov- 
ernment as that of Great Britain or France, Prussia, or 
even Russia, with the introduction of a good code of laws, 
a system of police, the Christian religion, many of the 
instruments of industry and the arts and agricultural 
science of Europe, a sound public policy to encourage 
and carry forward a system of irrigation and of planting 
and cultivating trees and timber, some progress might be 
made, even in Arabia. It can never be civilized, nor make 
any progress whatever without the aid of external force 
— to overturn Mahometanism — to pour into it a stream 
of living agents and emigrants — carrying with them the 
elements of civilization and the instruments of industry 
and progress — as the British have into Hindostan, and 
the French into Algiers. At present, however, and 
until the population of Europe, America, and Austra- 
lia, and all the isles of the ocean become more dense, 
and the means of subsistence more difficult, there can 
be no inducement for any people to attempt to colonize 
such a country. 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 257 

Sec. 13. Persia, Afghanistan, and Beloochistan. 

Afghanistan, or Cabul, and ^Beloochistan formerly be- 
longed to Persia, and formed part of the Persian empire, 
which extended from the river Tigris to the Indus, and 
from the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf to the Caspian 
Sea. The area and population of all those countries are 
mere estimates ; no accurate census or survey ever 
having been taken. 

The area of the present kingdom of Persia comprises 
about 480,000 square miles ; Afghanistan, about 225,000; 
and Beloochistan 175,000 square miles. The population 
of Persia has been variously estimated at from five to fif- 
teen millions^ and Afghanistan and Beloochistan at nearly 
as many. Considering the area, natural resources, and 
condition of those countries, I should estimate the popu- 
lation of Persia at about 9,000,000 ; that of Afghanistan 
at 5,000,000 ; and Beloochistan at 2,000,000 — making the 
three 16,000,000 inhabitants ; about the same as Turkey 
in Asia. Their area is much larger than that of Turkey 
in Asia ; but it should be considered that one-third part, 
or about 150,000 square miles, of Persia is a desert, not 
more than five per cent, of which is productive ; and 
that nearly half of Beloochistan, and some of Afghanis- 
tan, are also deserts and barren wastes. 

The north-western part of Persia is mountainous ; a 
strip along the Caspian Sea, and also the country lying 
along the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, are generally 
low and level. All the rest of Persia, the whole of Af- 
ghanistan, and the northern part of Beloochistan, consist 
of elevated lands. Persia has a chain of mountains 
running across the country from 50 to 100 miles 
from its northern boundary ; and the same chain runs 
across Afghanistan. Similar chains run from 100 to 200 
miles from the western, south-western, and southern boun- 
daries of Persia, and across Beloochistan. There is also 
a range of mountains running parallel with the river In- 
dus, nearly across Afghanistan and into Beloochistan. 
The interior of the country surrounded by those several 
ranges of mountains, comprising more than half of Persia, 
two-thirds of Afghanistan, and the northern part of Be- 



258 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

loochistan, forms not only an elevated table-land, but a 
vast basin from which no water flows, either into the 
ocean or into the Caspian Sea. That great basin con- 
tains about 500,000 square miles, and has a water-system 
of its own. It is about five times as large as the Ameri- 
can basin of a similar character, which comprises the 
State of Nevada and more than half of Utah, and from 
which no water flows to the ocean. 

The great basin of Persia and Afghanistan contains 
more than thirty lakes, and numerous rivers, some of 
which are of considerable size at some seasons of the 
year ; all of which run into the lakes, or, during seasons 
of drought, are lost in the sands of the deserts — that 
comprise about one-third part of the whole basin. 

The valleys and plains of that great basin within the 
limits of Persia are elevated from 2,000 to 5,000 feet, 
and in Afghanistan from 3,000 to 7,000 feet above the 
ocean. The mountain chains and peaks in Persia have 
been estimated at from 4,000 to 12,000 feet ; and in Af- 
ghanistan, at from 8,000 to 20,000 feet above the sea. 

The Caspian provinces and the western provinces of 
Persia, are well supplied with rains and snows, rivers 
and streams of water ; and are well watered and produc- 
tive countries. They have also considerable wood and 
timber, and were once well-timbered countries, and had 
large forests. The interior table-lands included in the 
great basin, have considerable rain at some seasons of 
the year, and generally an abundance of snow in winter ; 
but on the whole they are poorly watered, and therefore 
poorly supplied with wood and timber. The rains and 
snows are not sufficient to make the whole country pro- 
ductive — but enough, with skilful management, to irrigate 
the valleys and the sides of the mountains, and a large 
portion of the plains also. 

Though the natural resources of those countries are 
not large in proportion to the area thereof, yet they 
have a large amount of good land, and for the most 
part enjoy a good climate. Exclusive of the deserts, 
their area is more than three times as large as that of 
France. Under a good government, and in the posses- 
sion of such a people as the Chinese, English, French, 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 259 

Germans, or Hollanders, and by an extensive system of 
internal improvements, irrigation, terracing the sides of 
many of the hills and mountains, planting and cultivating 
trees and raising fruits, there is no reason to doubt that 
those countries might be made to sustain fifty or sixty 
millions of inhabitants, and perhaps more. 

About one-fourth part of all the inhabitants are wan- 
dering nomads, like those of Arabia, and Turkey in Asia 
— living in tents, upon the products of their flocks, and 
by hunting, fishing, and robbery, without fixed habita- 
tions or individual interests in lands. No permanent 
improvements can be made by such a people. There are 
in Persia some Nestorian Christians, some Armenians, 
some Jews, and some of the descendants of the ancient 
Persians, who are called Guebres ; but the most of the 
Persians are Mahometans of the sect known as Sheeahs, 
or Shiites. 

The Afghans consist of many races, and are divided 
into tribes, which are independent in many respects of 
the king, or head of the nation. There are several 
tribes of Eimauks and Hazaureh, dwelling in the moun- 
tains, which are more fierce than the Afghans, and less 
advanced in the industrial arts. Malte Brun states the 
Eimauks at four hundred to four hundred and fifty 
thousand ; and the Hazaureh at three hundred to three 
hundred and fifty thousand. 

Nearly all the inhabitants of Afghanistan and Beloo- 
chistan are Mahometans. The Afghans and Eimauks 
belong to the sect of Sunnites, and the Hazaureh to the 
Sheeahs or Shiites. Nomadism is always a turbulent 
and disturbing element in every country ; the implacable 
hatred between the Sunnites and the Shiites is a disturb- 
ing element of still greater force, and more extended influ- 
ence ; to which must be added, the many different races 
that inhabit those countries, and the great differences in 
in language, laws, and customs. There is no community 
of feeling nor bond of union between the people of those 
countries, or either of them. Nomadism and Mahomet- 
anism, sectarianism and difference of race and language, 
laws and customs, make a terrible mixture. 

The Persians had a famous history before the time of 



260 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

Alexander the Great. They were then distinguished as 
conquerors. They conquered Babylonia, and all south- 
western Asia worth possessing ; so that their empire 
extended from the river Indus to the Mediterranean Sea. 
Since that time, they have usually been the conquered. 
They were conquered by Alexander ; by the Saracens in 
the seventh century ; by the Seljook Turks in the nth 
century ; by the Mongol Tartars in the 13th century ; by 
Tamerlane in the 14th century ; and by the Afghans in 
the 1 8th century. They have been a warlike, restless, and 
ambitious, but not very energetic people, since the time of 
Cyrus ; and having a central and exposed situation, with- 
out any natural boundaries or defences, except on the 
south, Persia has been involved in more wars, and sub- 
jected to more invasions, than any other country on the 
earth, except Turkey in Asia. 

The greatest part of Persia requires irrigation. " Un- 
fortunately" (says Malte-Brun), " the canals subservient to 
this purpose have been destroyed in the frequent civil wars, 
in order to cut off the supply of water from an enemy. 
Scarcely a twentieth part of the country is at this day in 
cultivation!' The same remarks apply also to Afghanis- 
tan and Beloochistan. The numerous ruins in Persia 
and Afghanistan bear testimony that they were once 
well-peopled and fertile countries. They will never again 
enjoy peace and prosperity under Mahometan rule. 



Sec. 14. Independent Tartary, or Turkestan. 

Independent Tartary, sometimes called Turkestan, 
comprises several kingdoms or states, and is a large 
country, bounded west by the Caspian Sea, north by 
the Russian possessions, east by Chinese Tartary, and 
south by Persia and Afghanistan. It has an area of 
about 700,000 square miles, and a population generally 
estimated at about 6,000,000. 

It is bounded on the south and east by ranges of lofty 
mountains, which have spurs running into the interior, in 
which two large rivers, the Gihon and Sihon and nu- 
merous branches, have their sources. There is consider- 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 26 1 

able fertile and some rich lands in the valleys and at the foot 
of the mountains, but much of the interior and northern 
parts of the country consist of vast arid plains, the most 
of which produce a scanty supply of grass during a part 
of the summer — a large portion being worthless deserts. 
The rivers and streams of water are sufficient, if skilfully 
managed, to irrigate a large portion of the valleys and 
plains at the foot of the hills and mountains, and to render 
them much more productive than they ever have been. 

Turkestan has but few natural resources in proportion 
to the extent of the country — having a very small sup- 
ply of rain except in the mountains- — the plains being 
generally parched with drought the latter part of the 
summer and fall. There is also a great deficiency, and 
in the plains a general destitution of wood and timber, 
and no forests except on the sides of the mountains. 
Its interior situation, remote from the ocean, is sufficient 
to account for the deficiency of rain, for its extreme 
aridity, want of forests, deficiency of wood and timber, 
and the barrenness of the greatest part of it. 

The country is thinly inhabited, — mostly by semi-bar- 
barous tribes ; having but slight bonds of union between 
them, except the Koran and the Mahometan religion ; 
living principally upon the products of their flocks and 
plunder, giving but little attention to the cultivation of 
the earth — a large portion of them being wandering 
nomades, dwelling in tents. 

Such a people, without an efficient government, police, 
regular administration of justice, or code of laws, except 
the Koran and a few rude customs ; with but little in- 
dustry and very few elements of civilization, will never 
make any improvements or progress, and can never rise 
in the scale of civilization, without external aid. That 
country can never be civilized and much improved until 
Mahometanism shall have been overthrown, wandering 
nomadism checked and restrained, Christianity and the 
elements and agents of European civilization introduced, 
and law and order established. 

The Russians have been, for nearly a century, en- 
croaching upon the dominions of the Turks and Tartars, 
and subjecting district after district and tribe after tribe 



262 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

to Russian rule. They have conquered and colonized 
all the territories adjoining the northern shores of the 
Black, Caspian, and Aral Seas, and are extending their 
conquests south and east. They have recently taken a 
portion of Bokhara, the principal kingdom of Turkestan ; 
and the probability is, that they will eventually subject 
to their dominion the whole of Independent Tartary. 
They do not establish liberty and republicanism, nor the 
Protestant religion ; but wherever they go they carry with 
them law and order, the Bible and the principles of 
Christianity, Russian civilization and industry — which 
are good substitutes for Mahometanism and nomadism, 
and for the rude customs and indolence of the Tartars. 
Every conquest of the Russians, Greeks, French, or any 
other Christian nation from the Mahometans, is a pro- 
gressive movement in the cause of Christianity, industry, 
and civilization. 

Sec. 15. Egypt and its Dependences. 

The valley and* delta of the Nile, which is overflown 
annually, and irrigated by the floods and waters retained 
in lakes and reservoirs, is the only part of Egypt of value 
for agricultural purposes. It comprises only about 
7,000 or 8,000 square miles, which can be irrigated and 
made fit for cultivation. 

No accurate census of the population has ever been 
taken ; but it was generally estimated during the first half 
of the present century, and until recently,at about 2,500,000. 
McCullough says in his Geographical Dictionary that M. 
Mengin, a French author, estimated it, on a computation 
of the number of houses, at about 2,500,000 in 1822. 
Murray, in his Encyclopaedia of Geography, published 
about the year 1833, says the most careful recent esti- 
mates fix the population at about 2,500,000. Malte- 
Brun, who wrote about the same time, says, " The pop- 
ulation of Egypt has often been rated at two millions a7id 
a half" In the official estimate of the population of the 
Turkish Empire, made by order of the government in 
the year 1844, only 2,000,000 were put down for Egypt, 
and 1,800,000 for Tripoli, Tunis, and Fez. 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 263 

The New American Cyclopaedia — title, Egypt — contains 
the following statement : "A government census in 1847 
officially stated the number of inhabitants at 4,542,620. 
A census taken during the year 1859 gives a total of 
5,125 ,000. By foreign observers of judgment and accuracy ; 
these censuses are discredited, and their results held to be 
grossly falsified aiid exaggerated. Sir Gardner Williams 
computes the population at only 1,800,000. By others 
it is supposed to be about 2,500,000, of whom 2,000,000 
are Mahometans." 

Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia for 1866 states the 
population of Egypt and its dependences at 7,465,000, 
"of whom 4,306,691 belong to Egypt proper, 1,000,000 
to Nubia, 400,000 to Kordefan and Tahale, 38,000 to 
Taka, 20,000 to the territory of the Bareah, and 1,700,000 
to other parts of Egyptian Soodan." The population of 
Egypt is stated to be according to a census taken in 
1862. All those official statements are believed to be 
vague estimates and computations from partial enumera- 
tions, and not entitled to much credit ; that of 1844 being 
quite too low, and those for 1847, l %59> and 1862 en- 
tirely too high. 

The civil wars in Egypt, after the departure of the 
French, resulted in the elevation in 1805 of Mehemet 
Ali, an Albanian, to the post of pacha, subject to the 
Sultan of Turkey, to whom an annual tribute is paid of 
nearly two millions of dollars. Mehemet Ali instituted 
some reforms in the government, constructed a canal 
from Cairo to Alexandria, encouraged the introduction and 
fostered the manufacture of arms, cloths, and many 
useful articles ; and governed Egypt with great ability, 
until the year 1848, when his son Ibrahim succeeded 
him. The vice-regal throne is made hereditary in his 
family. Said Pacha, the fourth son of Mehemet Ali, suc- 
ceeding to the throne in 1854, carried out many of the 
plans of his father ; and under his administration a rail- 
road was built from Alexandria to Cairo. Ismael Pacha, 
another son of Mehemet Ali, succeeded to the vice-regal 
throne in 1863. 

Egypt is the only Mahometan country in which any 
important reforms or great improvements have been 



264 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

made for many centuries past. Mehemet Ali, having 
imbibed some of the spirit of modern European civiliza- 
tion and improvement, introduced a new era into Egypt, and 
made some improvements and reforms ; and still greater 
improvements and more important reforms have been 
carried into effect under the administrations of his sons 
— the most important of which was the establishment 
of a legislative assembly, to be elected by the people, 
for three years ; the first session of which was opened 
in November, 1866. It was the first popular legislative 
assembly ever held in a Mahometan country. 

Many causes had an influence upon the government, 
and contributed to the making of such improvements 
and reforms ; among which we may reckon, 1st. The 
laws, usages, and policy introduced by the French, after 
their conquest of Egypt in 1798; 2d. An increased 
commercial intercourse with Great Britain, France, and 
other countries, after the peace of 181 5 ; 3d. The intro- 
duction of steam navigation into the Mediterranean and 
Red Seas, and the establishment of lines of transportation 
by steam through those seas, Alexandria and Cairo, and 
over the Isthmus of Suez, between England and the 
East Indies. 

All those causes have contributed to increase largely 
the industry and commerce, prosperity and population 
of Egypt ; to which may be added, 1st. The expenditure 
of large sums of money, and the employment of a large 
number of laborers, by the Suez Canal Company, in 
making a ship canal from the Nile across the Isthmus of 
Suez to the Red Sea. 

2d. The immense increase of the cotton manufacture 
in Europe, and the increased demand for cotton, which 
encouraged and stimulated its production in Egypt, as 
well as in India and the United States. Even the great 
civil war in our country, by diminishing the production 
of cotton, had such an influence upon prices as to 
stimulate the production of cotton in Egypt to such an 
extent, as to greatly benefit that country. 

The number of vessels which entered the four Egyp- 
tian ports of Alexandria, Damietta, Port-Said, and Suez, 
during the year 1864, was 6,009, °f which 1,124 were 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 265 

steamers. The number of passengers reported was 
68,678. 

The value of cotton exported in 1861 was but 
$7,154,400 ; in 1864 it had increased to $74,213,500. 

The most of the cotton exported from Egypt has been 
to Great Britain. The quantity and value imported into 
Great Britain from Egypt, are stated in the British Al- 
manac as follows : 



1851.. 

1856.. 
1863.. 
1864.. 
1865.. 



Quantity Value in 

in Cwts. Pounds sterling. 

I3I.39 2 

307J34 

815,389 8,841,557 

1,120,479 ••< 14,300,507 

1,578,912 13,906,641 



Truly, there is progress in one Mahometan country. 
But all this progress has been borrowed. It has arisen 
from intercourse and commerce with Christian nations. It 
has been in a great measure forced upon the government 
and people, by reason of the peculiar geographical situa- 
tion of Egypt, and by a conjunction of fortunate circum- 
stances. 

Sec. 16. Tripoli, Tunis, Fezzan, and Barca. 

The area of Tripoli is about 100,000 square miles ; 
half of which is a desert, with some fertile districts, sur- 
rounded with barren sands and rocks. The population 
has been variously estimated at from-one to two millions. 

The area of Tunis is estimated in McCulloch's Gazet- 
teer at 72,000 square miles, and the population at two to 
two and a half millions. The population is estimated in 
the New American Cyclopaedia at 2,500,000. 

Tripoli and Tunis have been nominally subject to the 
Sultan of Turkey ; but for more than half a century past 
they have been substantially independent. The beys, or 
chief executive officers of those countries, exercise power 
nearly absolute. The sovereignty being claimed by the 
sultan, they have been included in the estimates made 

12 



266 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

by the government of the population of the Turkish 
Empire, and the two have been put down together at only 
1,800,000. But that is much below the usual estimates 
made by travellers and authors. Perhaps Tripoli may 
have 1,500,000 inhabitants ; Tunis, 2,000,000 ; Fezzan, 
lying south of Tripoli, 100,000 ; and Barca, lying along 
the Mediterranean Sea, east of Tripoli, 100,000. 

The condition and resources of those countries are 
considered in connection with Morocco, after the next 
section. 

Sec. 17. Algeria. 

The cities and coasts of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and 
Morocco, all swarmed with pirates, which were en- 
couraged and protected by the governments of those 
countries, until within a few years past. In consequence 
of their piracies and cruelties to shipwrecked mariners, 
the United States sent a fleet to Algiers in 181 5, which 
had a battle with, and achieved a signal victory over 
their fleet, sailed into the harbor of Algiers, and dic- 
tated to them terms of peace. For a like cause, France 
sent a fleet and an army, and captured the city of Algiers 
in the year 1830 ; held it as a conquest, and during the 
subsequent twenty years reduced to subjection and col- 
onized the whole country. Though it is now a French 
colony, I include it in this chapter with Mahometan 
nations, because nearly nine-tenths of the inhabitants 
are Mahometans, and it was under Mahometan rule more 
than a thousand years. 

Algeria is nearly five hundred miles long from east to 
west, and, including that part of it lying on the south 
side of the Atlas range of mountains, it is nearly four 
hundred miles wide from north to south, and contains 
about 150,000 square miles; being nearly three-fourths 
as large as France, though it does not contain one-fourth 
part as much arable land. McCulloch said (in 1840) the 
population had been variously estimated at " 1,700,000 
to 2,300,000, and may probably amount to abotit 2,000,000." 

The official report of the area and population of the 
several provinces of Algeria in 1861 was as follows: 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. ' 267 

Area in Hectares. Population. 

Alger 1 1,300,000 974,49 r 

Constantine .... 17,500,000 1,402,027 

Oran 10,200,000 622,606 



Total * 39,000,000 2,999, 1 2 4 

Of whom, Europeans and their descendants 

numbered 191,836 

Jews (natives of Algeria) 29,007 

Mahometans 2,778,281 

There has been quite a large emigration to Algeria, 
mostly from France, but considerable from Spain, and 
some from Italy and other countries. The official re- 
ports of the Europeans at different periods, exclusive of 
the French army, have been as follows : 



In 1831, Dec 
1841, 
185-1; 
1861, 
1864, 



31st 3,288 

37,374 

131,283 

i9!> 8 36 

-'■ • • 235,570 



The army in Algeria, in 1864, consisted of 3,844 
officers, and 88,262 soldiers. 

On the 31st of December, 1864, the French and other 
European colonists in Algeria were settled in about 240 
cities and villages, and other centres of population. The 
colony had made 7 imperial roads, 38 provincial roads, 
and 45 great roads, the extent of which when finished 
will be 6,661 kilometres (4,160 miles), of which 3,826 
kilometres (about 2.400 miles) had been completed and 
macadamized or stoned. A railroad from Algiers to 
Blidah, a distance of about 31 miles, had been com- 
pleted. 

The agricultural estates, plantations, or farms, belong- 
ing to French and other European colonists, comprised 
567,277 hectares, of which 188,521 were cultivated and 

* A hectare is nearly 2.\ English acres, 260 hectares being about 
equal to a square mile. 



268 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

sown or planted during the year 1864; the plantations 
and farms occupied by the natives in the centres of 
colonization, contained 951,174 hectares, of which 
418,157 were sown or planted during that year : 110,553 
of the colonists, being nearly half of the whole, were 
agriculturists, living on plantations or farms. 

The forests are said to cover an area of 1,800,000 hec- 
tares (about 4,500,000 acres), or nearly 7,000 square 
miles ; of which 1,000,000 hectares are accessible and 
valuable — the rest being so situated upon the mountains 
as to be inaccessible and valueless — except, as an agent 
to increase the rains and springs, and retain the moisture 
of the country. 

The external commerce of Algeria was as follows — 
stated in francs : 

Imports. Exports. 

1862 104,015,476. . . 35^58,927 

1864 136,458,793 108,067,354 

Seven colleges and collegiate institutes were in opera- 
tion in 1864, attended by 1,135 students; of which 101 
were Israelites, and 112 Mahometans; the others being 
French and other Europeans. There was also a medical 
college, and 487 primary schools, which were attended 
by 38,222 scholars ; of which 29,875 were French ; 
12,749 other Europeans; 5,133 Jews; and 464 Ma- 
hometans. 

Of 218 centres of European population only y6 are 
destitute of the means of primary instruction ; and the 
most of the destitute centres have less than 100 inhab- 
itants each. 

Banks of deposit, discount, and circulation, and also 
savings banks, have been introduced. At the latter, 
5,078 persons had deposited, during the year 1864, the 
sum of 2,053,145 francs; drawn out, 732,629; and had 
on deposit at the end of the year, 1,320,516 francs. 

These facts, taken from official reports, show that an 
era of progress has again dawned upon Algeria, which 
had been under the blighting influence of Mahometanism 
for more than 1,100 years ; and that France is doing 
a great and good work, in planting the elements of 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 269 

modern Christian civilization and progress in Northern 
Africa. 

It is impossible to Christianize and improve a Ma- 
hometan country to any considerable extent, without pur- 
suing such a course of policy as the French have done 
in Algeria, or one very similar to it. The political 
power of the Mahometans must be first overthrown, and 
European colonists introduced ; and with them, the laws 
and institutions, arts and implements, and the methods 
of agricultural and mechanical industry of Christian 
nations can be also introduced. 

The Mussulmen should not be punished nor persecut- 
ed on account of their religious opinions, nor restricted 
in the free exercise of their religious rights and privileges 
according to their faith ; but political power should be 
wrested from them, and they should be reduced to a sub- 
ordinate political condition. They should not be rulers, 
and should rarely be permitted to participate in making 
or administering the laws, except in municipal and purely 
local matters. 



Sec. 1 8. Empire of Morocco. 

The Empire of Morocco has an area of about 220,000 
square miles, and a population generally estimated at 
from six to eight millions. Some have estimated it 
higher. 

The government is a central despotism over numerous 
semi-barbarous tribes and peoples, in some respects in- 
dependent of each other, and between which the bond 
of union is very slight. Many of them are wandering 
nomades, addicted to plunder ; some are pirates ; nearly all 
are low in the scale of morals, and anarchy often prevails. 
They have but little industry, and a mere trifle of com- 
merce ; the government is as bad, and life and property 
quite as insecure as in Turkey in Asia. These cir- 
cumstances, the recent census of Algiers, and the popu- 
lation of Turkey in Asia, all indicate that the population 
of the Empire of Morocco probably does not exceed 
6,000,000, or at most 7,000,000. 

The low state of industry is indicated by the small 



270 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

amount of commerce — the total amount of exports being 
stated in the New American Cyclopaedia at only 
$2,500,000 annually ; a very trifling amount when com- 
pared with the exports of Algeria, which were over 
$20,000,000 in 1864. This shows a great contrast be- 
tween Mahometan and French rule — as there is no 
reason to doubt that the productive lands and forests, 
natural resources and population of Morocco are twice 
as great as those of Algeria. 

The Atlas Mountains, as described by Malte-Brun, 
consist of "a series of five or six chains, rising one be- 
hifid another, and including many table-lands!' The 
highest range, which is called Great Atlas, and consti- 
tutes the watershed of the country, is very irregular, and 
generally from one to two hundred miles in the interior 
and from the coast. The rivers which rise on its northern 
slope break through the lower ranges of hills and moun- 
tains, and fall into the Mediterranean Sea or the Atlantic 
Ocean ; while those that rise on its southern slope, and 
the ridges below it, are lost in the sands of the desert, 
or form lakes in the interior. The highest peaks of the 
Great Atlas mountains are from 9,000 to 13,000 feet 
high, and are covered with snow the most of the year. 

Those mountain chains run across Morocco and Al- 
geria, and into Tunis, and connect with other ranges of 
hills and mountains, which run into Tripoli and across 
Fezzan. They make a large portion of Algeria and 
Morocco, and a part of Tunis, mountainous countries ; 
though the most of the ridges are only from one to 
three thousand feet in height above the sea — being 
generally low when compared with the mountains of 
Switzerland. 

There is a great variety of surface in all those coun- 
tries — including numerous valleys and mountain slopes, 
extensive plains, and elevated table-lands. The moun- 
tains contain large areas of barren rock and inaccessible 
rocky peaks and cliffs, and a large amount of forests and 
woodlands. The most of the forests and woodlands are 
valuable, but many of them are inaccessible. The valleys, 
and many of the mountain slopes and table-lands and 
plains, are very productive, and capable of producing 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 2^1 

large quantities of grains and fruits, and vegetables also,and 
of supporting large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. 

More than two-thirds of all those countries — including 
all the mountain regions, and the country north of the 
mountains — are well supplied with rains during the rainy 
season ; and the mountains are covered with snow in 
winter. They are therefore tolerably well supplied with 
springs and brooks, rivers and rivulets ; and by means 
of dams and reservoirs, canals and a skilful system of 
irrigation, large quantities of land, now barren, or produc- 
tive of a little pasturage only, might be made to produce 
large crops, and rich harvests. There is no reason to 
doubt that with a good government, and an extensive 
system of internal improvements — of roads and railroads, 
dams and reservoirs, canals and works for irrigation — and 
the application of the agricultural and mechanical science 
and methods of Europe, the Barbary States might be 
made to support three or four times their present number 
of inhabitants. 



Sec. 19. Influence of Mountains and Forests upon Cli- 
mate and Vegetation. 

Forests lessen evaporation, and tend to preserve the 
humidity of the atmosphere and of the earth. Moun- 
tains and forests also cool the atmosphere, aid in con- 
densing the vapor in it, lessen its capacity to hold water 
in the form of vapor or fine particles of rain, and tend to 
increase the fall of rain and snow, and also of dew. 
Forests as well as mountains (though in a much less 
degree) arrest and break the clouds floating in the at- 
mosphere, and thereby aid and directly increase the pre- 
cipitation of rain and snow. 

Not only mountains, but forests also, serve as shelters 
to protect a country from violent winds ; from great 
changes of weather, resulting from a change of wind ; 
from unseasonable frosts ; from malaria, sometimes carried 
in the atmosphere to a great distance ; and in some in- 
stances, in hot and dry climates, forests protect lands 
and large districts of country from drifting sands. In 
all these particulars forests perform the same offices 



2J2 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

(within a narrower sphere) that mountains usually do. 
Without the lofty ranges of the Atlas Mountains, to cool 
the atmosphere, to condense the vapors, and cause the 
precipitation of rain and snow, and protect the country 
from the arid winds of the Desert of Sahara, the most of 
the Barbary States would have been so arid as to be 
worthless — like the Libyan Desert, and the Desert of 
Barca, lying between them and Egypt. 

Forests, as well as lakes and swamps and reservoirs 
for irrigation, serve to hold back the water, and keep it 
for use during the season, instead of letting it run off 
rapidly after a rain. By diminishing evaporation, and 
making drainage slow and more gradual, they render 
springs, and small streams supplied by springs, more 
numerous, permanent, and regular. 

The destruction of woods and forests, groves and trees, 
in Mahometan countries, during the last 1,200 years and 
upwards, has been amazingly reckless ; and the use of 
wood and timber, when it could be had, seems to have 
been very improvident, and without any apparent regard 
or thought for the future. Mahometan fatalism and in- 
dolence render a people blind to the wants of the future, 
and mindful only of the present. Forests and trees for 
fuel and timber are of slow growth — requiring from fifty 
to a hundred years to come to much maturity ; and 
when cut down in a Mahometan country, they are never 
or rarely ever renewed. The cattle and other stock of 
a nomadic people generally eat up and destroy the young, 
sprouts and trees ; and there has never been care, cal- 
culation, and industry exercised by Arabs or Turks, Tar- 
tars or Moors, sufficient either to plant or to protect 
young trees, and grow forests. 

The ancient ruins in Mahometan countries indicate, 
and history attests, that many districts of country (com- 
prising hundreds of millions of acres), now arid and deso- 
late wastes, were once tolerably well supplied with wood 
and timber, springs and streams of water ; and much of 
them were improved, cultivated, and productive — giving 
support to millions and tens of millions of inhabitants. 
No adequate cause can be assigned for these great 
changes in the physical condition of many countries, ex- 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 273 

cept cutting down the forests, and the general destruction 
of the forest trees and timber. (See, on this subject, the 
work of George P. Marsh, on Man and Nature.) 

Sec. 20. The Desert of Sahara. 

The Desert of Sahara, including the Libyan Desert of 
Egypt, is about 3,000 miles long, from east to west — from 
the Atlantic to the valley of the Nile — and from 750 to 
nearly 1,100 miles wide, from north to south. It consists 
mostly of a vast arid table-land, from 1,000 to 2,000 feet 
in height — with many mountains from 3,000 to 4,000 
feet above the sea. It seldom rains on the plains ; but 
the higher mountains condense the small amount of 
vapor sometimes in the atmosphere, and cause precipi- 
tations of rain during the rainy season. 

The desert contains many small fertile districts, de- 
nominated oases, in which some grains, fruits, and vege- 
tables are cultivated ; and also numerous districts which 
produce some grass a portion of the year — during the 
rainy season, and for some time after the rains cease. 

There are over thirty oases in the desert, of which 
twenty are said to be inhabited. One of them is about 
80 miles long, and 8 or 10 in breadth ; but the most of 
them are small. They are either deep valleys, or situated 
at the foot of the highest mountains — where there are 
springs and running streams, supplied by rains on the 
mountains. 

It is not likely that the whole Desert of Sahara and 
Libya contains more than three or four hundred thou- 
sand inhabitants ; and it may not contain half as many — 
consisting mostly of small tribes of wandering Arabs, 
with their flocks ; though some in the fertile districts 
have fixed residences and permanent dwellings in 
villages. Of course much progress or civilization is im- 
possible in a country containing so small and few natural 
resources, and no facilities for commerce. 

12* 



274 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

Sec. 21. Influence of Mahometanism on the Character 
and Policy of Peoples and Nations. 

The most of the Arabs having a nomadic character at 
the time of the Prophet, the Koran was made to har- 
monize with nomadism, and hence Mahometanism com- 
mended itself to the wandering hordes of Arabs, Turks 
and Tartars, who voluntarily adopted it, and it became 
the religion of all the nomadic tribes of Asia and North- 
ern Africa. Nomadism was everywhere blended with 
Mahometanism, which sanctions and sustains it. 

A wandering people, having no permanent dwellings, 
fixed residences, nor individual proprietorship in lands, 
never feel much interest in preserving the wood and 
timber of a country, nor in making any permanent and 
valuable improvements.. Such a people generally feel 
that lands and everything growing upon them belong to 
the human family in common, and that they have a right 
to help themselves to whatever they find growing upon 
mother earth ; and hence the predatory disposition of 
nomadic peoples, which is not restrained, but encouraged 
by Mahometanism. Nomadism must be checked and 
restrained, and the people confined to fixed localities and 
residences, in which they have individual interests, before 
they will make any permanent improvements, or any 
efforts to plant trees, or to preserve the trees, forests, 
and wood of their country. 

The spirit of the Koran is contracted and clannish, 
confining its blessings and the duties of charity to the 
brethren — to those regarded as the faithful — and granting 
a general license to war against and plunder all others. 
The gospel is more catholic in its character and precepts ; 
it breathes a spirit of love and charity, benevolence and 
good-will to all mankind — requiring the apostles to carry 
to all nations and peoples the blessings of Christianity, 
by preaching and moral suasion. 

The Koran sanctions and encourages sensuality and 
gelfishness, and tends to make a people grossly sensual and 
intensely selfish. Mahometans do not seem to feel the 
obligation of any moral duty ; they seem generally des- 
titute of moral feeling and of moral sense ; and the 



MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 2?$ 

office-holders of Mahometan nations are reputed to be 
generally corrupt, grasping, and tyrannical. The gospel 
condemns sensuality and avarice, corruption, and ex- 
treme selfishness in every form ; and inculcates self- 
restraint and purity, honesty, and justice to all. 

The Koran stimulates ambition for conquest, power, 
and dominion. The gospel inculcates peace, meekness, 
and humility, and submission to laws and rules of order. 

The Koran and the customs and usages of Mahometan 
nations are not consistent with the principles of justice, 
nor with either civil or religious liberty. They admit re- 
ligious toleration only on the payment of tribute. They 
inculcate war, not peace, nor peaceful industry. They 
recognize the rights of people of only one faith and mode 
of religious worship. They recognize the law of force 
only — as applied to peoples of other religious faiths. 
They are not consistent with the independence, security, 
or peace of nations ; and nothing but conscious weak- 
ness and the fear of defeat and chastisement, can restrain 
Mahometan nations from constantly warring with and 
plundering other nations, and each other also. 

The natural equality and independence of nations, 
their right to regulate their own domestic affairs in their 
own way, and the principles of justice and of non-in- 
tervention, constitute the main corner-stones of the laws 
of nations. They harmonize with the principles of 
Christianity, but not with the Koran and Mahometanism. 
Mahometan nations have no respect for, and not much 
knowledge of, the laws of nations. They occasionally 
send ambassadors, but do not regularly maintain diplo- 
matic relations with other nations, nor with each other. 
Turkey receives ambassadors, and allows them to reside 
at Pera, a suburb of Constantinople, but sends very few 
ambassadors to other countries. Diplomacy is not con- 
sistent with the genius of Mahometanism ; and yet 
regular diplomatic relations are necessary agencies to 
maintain the peace of nations. 

There is no public spirit in Mahometan countries ; 
and there never has been any, except during the excite- 
ments of war. In time of peace, individual selfishness 
everywhere predominates. Nothing but war can excite 



2j6 MAHOMETAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

public spirit and national ambition among such a people. 
In fact, there is never any public spirit in times of peace 
among any people, who have no participation in the 
government. 

When the power of the religious elements of Mahom- 
etan countries shall have been reversed, the political 
power of the Mahometans overthrown and given to the 
Christians, and Mahometanism simply tolerated ; and 
when those countries shall have been colonized by emi- 
grants from Europe, carrying with them the arts and ele- 
ments of civilization, then, and not till then, can those vast 
and generally fine countries be brought within the pale of 
civilization. To attain so great an object, requires not 
only the inanimate elements of civilization and progress, 
but also great numbers of active living agents to trans- 
plant and use them. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES. 

Sec. i. General Remarks. 

The Mongol races inhabit China and the islands of 
Japan and some others, Chinese Tartary and Thibet, and 
the countries lying between China and Thibet on the 
north and the Malay peninsula, and also Corea. They 
comprise all the tribes of Tartars, some of which migrat- 
ed westwardly, mixed with the Turks, and are now settled 
in Independent Tartary or Turkestan ; some are settled 
north-west of the Caspian Sea, and also north of the 
Black Sea, within the present dominions of Russia ; and 
some in Persia and Afghanistan. 

The Mongol races inhabit all the central and south- 
eastern portions of the continent of Asia, from below the 
ioth to above the 50th degree of latitude, embracing a 
great variety of climate, cold and temperate, warm and 
hot ; and the character of the inhabitants is as varied as 
that of the climate. The Chinese and Japanese are an* 
intellectual and educated, and remarkably industrious 
people — having a large amount of wealth ; while the 
Tartars of Mongolia and Mantchooria, and the inhabitants 
of the torrid zone south of China, are an unintellectual 
and uneducated people. The Chinese and Japanese are in 
some respects a highly cultivated people of a peculiar 
and original type of civilization ; the northern Tartars 
are a pastoral and semi-barbarous people, and the tropical 
Mongolians of the countries south of China, are sunk in 
indolence and sensuality, ignorance and superstition, and 
are nearly as barbarous as the northern Tartars, 



278 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

Sec. 2. China — its Area, Population, and Natural 
Resources. 

The population of China is briefly referred to in Vol- 
ume L, p. 574, but we have now much more information 
in relation to that country than we had when that volume 
was written. 

The area of China proper, lying south of the Great 
Wall, has been generally estimated at from 1,300,000 to 
1,348,000 square miles — being nearly six and a half times 
as large as France, and about eleven times as large as 
Great Britain and Ireland. 

The population was estimated by the Jesuit Amiot in 
1743, from official reports of persons and families taxed, 
at 143,000,000 ; father Allerston estimated it in 1743, at 
198,000,000 ; and Lord Macartney was officially informed 
in 1795, that it was 333,000,000. The official reports of 
the population of the several provinces made the number 

In 18 1 2 over 360,000,000 

1825 352,866,000 

More recently the population has been estimated much 
higher — at 415,000,000 in 1849. All the estimates are 
uncertain, and the most of them incredible, when we 
consider the population of Great Britain, France, and 
other countries of Europe, and also the number of in- 
habitants in Hindostan. 

The estimates made by the government at different peri- 
ods, show that the population had increased very much 
during the last hundred years ; and the condition of the 
country indicates that it may have nearly doubled during 
the last two hundred years — since the conquests of the 
Mantchoo Tartars united China, Mantchooria, and Mongo- 
lia, under one government, put an end to the incursions and 
raids of the Tartars, and gave permanent peace to China. 

The eastern and north-eastern parts of China, lying 
along the sea, the Peiho river, and the eastern part of 
the Great Wall — comprising about one-third of the whole 
— consist of vast plains and extensive bottom lands, along 
and near the mouths of the great rivers. 

There is an extensive range of mountains, known as 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 279 

the Meling Mountains, between the Yang-tse-kiang and 
Hong-kiang rivers, commencing near the sea, and ex- 
tending west to (he mountains' of Thibet ; and another 
range between the Yang-tse-kiang and Hoang-Ho rivers, 
commencing about two hundred miles from the sea, and 
extending westward into Mongolia ; and the whole 
country gradually rises from the great plains in the east 
to elevated valleys and table-lands, from 3,000 to 4,000 
feet above the sea on the borders of Thibet and Mongolia 
— with mountain ridges 6,000 to 8,000 feet above the 
sea, and many peaks from 12,000 to 15,000 feet high. 

The western half of China is called mountainous, the 
adjoining one-sixth part, hilly, and the eastern and north- 
eastern third, level. There are fine and rich valleys 
along the large rivers ; many elevated plains and valleys 
in the mountain provinces, which are rich and produc- 
tive ; and the slopes and sides of the mountains are often 
terraced and cultivated ; but there is a considerable 
amount of mountain peaks and ridges above the region 
of vegetation, covered with snow till late in the summer ; 
and a large amount also of mountain land very steep, 
sometimes inaccessible, often consisting of naked rocks, 
and utterly worthless for any purpose. Trees are often 
planted on the mountains, and lands rendered valuable 
for the growth of timber, which are unfit for cultivation. 

The extent, magnitude, and height of the mountains 
in China, indicate that there must be a much larger pro- 
portion of mountain land unfit for cultivation, than there 
is in Great Britain, France, or any country of Europe, 
except Switzerland and Spain ; and that fact should be 
taken into account in estimating the population. 

The mountains serve to cool the air, and render the 
greatest part of China cooler than most other countries in 
the same latitude. It is an admirably well watered 
country — being well supplied with rains and snows, 
springs and brooks, rivers and rivulets, and some lakes. 
The rains and snows are abundantly sufficient to make 
the country generally productive ; and the internal river 
navigation exceeds almost every country in the world. 

China is also reasonably well supplied with forests and 
timber, partly by means of planting and preserving timber 



280 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

and trees upon the steep sides and tops of hills and moun- 
tains, which are unfit for cultivation. Iron and copper, 
and extensive beds of coal also, abound in the northern 
provinces. Its agricultural resources are superior, per- 
haps, to those of any great country in the world, except 
Hindostan, Brazil, and these United States ; its mineral 
and other natural resources are also very great ; and it 
is capable of giving employment and the means of sub- 
sistence to a very dense and large population. But its 
natural resources are far from being equal in proportion 
to its extent (that is, eleven times as great) as those of 
Great Britain and Ireland ; and there is no good reason 
to believe that China can have eleven times as many in- 
habitants as Great Britain and Ireland, which would give 
it about 320,000,000. 

China has but little foreign commerce in proportion to 
its industry, and but few of its inhabitants live as the 
English do, out of other nations ; and so far from having 
eleven times as many cities, it has scarcely twice as 
many as Great Britain and Ireland have. Its commerce, 
however, being mostly internal, and its exchanges domes- 
tic, it may have a greater number of smaller cities and 
villages ; and by reason of the greater frugality of the 
people, it seems not improbable that it may have 
300,000,000 of inhabitants. 

Great Britain and Ireland have a population averaging 
about 240 to the square mile ; England and Wales have 
about 343 to the square mile; and France about 175. 
Fully half of the inhabitants of China are located upon 
the plains, flat lands, and river bottoms in the eastern 
part of the empire ; and supposing the whole popu- 
lation of China proper to be 300,000,000, and the eastern 
and north-eastern third of it 150,000,000, the eastern part 
would have about 340 to the square mile, the central and 
western two-thirds 170, and the whole of China about 
225 to the square mile ; which is quite probable. 

Sec. 3. Importance of Written Language. 

The invention of letters and a written language to re- 
cord and perpetuate a knowledge of discoveries and 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 28 1 

events, laws and the ordinances and proceedings of 
government, constitutes the initial point of any con- 
siderable degree of civilization ; without which it is im- 
possible for a people to have what can properly be term- 
ed an organized government, a system of jurisprudence, 
a regular administration of justice in accordance with 
established rules, any records, books, or schools for the 
preservation and propagation of knowledge, or any means 
of rising much above the grade of barbarians. 

An organized government is one in which the powers 
of many of its officers are prescribed by law. Organiza- 
tion cannot exist without law, which must precede and co- 
exist with it. Without organization and law, government, 
being entirely arbitrary, must be limited to a few thousand 
persons, under the immediate direction of a chief and a 
few lieutenants ; for when extended farther, it becomes 
so imperfect, irregular, and inefficient in its operations, 
that it cannot long command the submission of the peo- 
ple at a distance from the chief —and anarchy is a neces- 
sary consequence. 

It is impossible to organize, hold together permanently, 
and govern even an army of any considerable size, with- 
out records, the use of written language, and some es- 
tablished laws. Without laws and records, the duties and 
responsibilities of officers cannot be established, so as to 
provide a proper distribution of supplies to the men, 
which is necessary to keep an army together. Without 
such aids it is impossible to unite peoples and tribes 
scattered over a wide extent of country, and to hold them 
together as a nation under one head and one administra- 
tion. Organization and law are both necessary to con- 
stitute a nation ; and neither can exist to an extent suffi- 
cient to form a nation, and hold it together for any con- 
siderable length of time, without the aid of written 
languages. Petty tribes may form by parol, temporary 
confederacies to wage war for some common object, but it 
is impossible for them to organize a government for a 
great nation, or to maintain a confederacy permanently. 
Not only the Indian tribes of America, but all the in- 
habitants of tropical and Southern Africa, are, and ever 
have been, divided into petty tribes and very small king- 



282 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

doms of a few thousand persons, occupying a small ter- 
ritory, under a chief — sometimes elected, bat generally 
hereditary. No large kingdom ever existed among such 
a people ; and it is impossible for a large kingdom to 
exist without organization and records, which cannot 
exist without a written language and written laws. 

The first inventions of letters and syllables as the 
elements of language, and of written languages, may be 
very properly regarded as the greatest and most im- 
portant inventions ever made by man. They are inven- 
tions which required the highest order of intellect to 
make. (See ante, pp. 16, 17, 216, and 217.) 

Sec. 4. Modes of Forming Written Language. 

There are two classes of elements of written language ; 
one consisting of letters representing sounds, and the 
other syllabic characters representing things, acts, and 
ideas. The first is the most flexible, furnishes much the 
greatest facilities for forming combinations to represent 
complex things and ideas, and is much the easiest to 
learn, and retain a recollection of. 

The mode in which letters are the first elements, has 
been adopted in all Western Asia, Europe, and Northern 
Africa, from the river Ganges to the Atlantic Ocean and 
the Desert of Sahara ; and the analogies of the formation 
of the written languages of all those parts of the earth, show 
that they have probably all been derived from the one 
source — from one and the same original invention of 
letters, and the same method of combining them into 
words. 

On the contrary, the written languages of China and 
Japan, and all the Mongolian nations, have the syllabic 
formation — syllabic characters, representing things and 
ideas, constituting the elements. The Chinese language 
has thousands of elementary characters, which renders it 
more complicated, difficult to learn and understand, and 
more difficult to retain also, than any language of Europe 
or Western Asia. 

Learned men, who are familiar with the principles 
of language and understand the grammar of several 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 283 

languages, can easily use the letters of any European 
language to form a written language and a grammar for 
any savage or barbarous tribe, adapted to their oral 
language ; but it is very difficult for an unlettered people 
to invent an alphabet or syllabic characters, and to form 
a written language for themselves, which must be a very 
slow process, from the inherent difficulty of the subject. 

When letters were once invented, and a written 
language formed in Phoenicia, the Phoenicians soon 
carried the invention to other nations with whom they 
had commercial intercourse, and written languages were 
formed by learned men for them also ; and thus the in- 
vention was carried from one nation to another, and 
written languages formed adapted to the oral languages 
in use, until every nation from the Ganges to the Atlan- 
tic Ocean were possessed of the invention of letters, 
and acquired for themselves a written language. 

The elementary character of the written language of 
the Chinese being different from all the languages of 
Western Asia and Europe, it could not have been de- 
rived from them ; and as the Chinese are superior in ac- 
quirements and intellect to the Japanese and all the other 
Mongolian nations, they could not have derived the ele- 
ments of their written language from their Mongolian 
neighbors, but must have invented them, and formed 
their written language themselves. This should be re- 
garded as the greatest and most difficult of all their in- 
ventions ; and the art of printing invented by them, is the 
next in importance of all their inventions and achieve- 
ments. 



Sec. 5. Arts, Inventions, and Improvements of the 
Chinese. 

Agriculture, the most important of all arts, is pursued 
with great care and wonderful industry. The greatest 
portion of the surface of China is in a high state of cul- 
tivation, compared with that of England, or any country 
of Europe, a century since. But chemical science, and 
agriculture as a science, are both in a low state, compared 
with their condition in England at this day ; and the 



284 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

methods, tools, and implements of agricultural industry 
in use in China are rude, in comparison with those of 
England. 

The hills of China are sometimes steep, but generally 
rise with a gentle ascent, one range of hills rising above 
another ; and as the snow-capped mountains and naked 
rocks occupy but a comparatively small portion of the 
surface of the country, and the most of the hills do not 
attain a very great elevation, their sides are said to be 
very generally cultivated, on the terrace system, and 
planted with rice and other grain, and often irrigated ; 
and the steep sides and tops of the hills are generally 
covered with forest trees — often planted, and always pre- 
served with great care. Rice is extensively cultivated 
upon high lands, by means of irrigation. They have but 
few animals, and seldom use lands for grazing that are 
fit for cultivation. 

The agricultural products of China must be very great, 
though we have no means of estimating the quantities, 
as we have in the United States and in many countries 
of Europe. The productions of tea and rice, cotton and 
silk, are very large and valuable. 

The Chinese have made great proficiency in the useful 
arts and in manufactures ; in working the metals ; in 
spinning and weaving, and making cotton and linen 
goods, and beautiful cotton, silk, and satin fabrics ; in 
making paper, pottery, and porcelain. In many of the 
useful arts they excelled every people of Europe, even 
as late as the middle of the 18th century ; and even in the 
fore part of the 19th century, great quantities of fine 
nankeens, and other cotton and silk goods, satins, and 
beautiful porcelains, were exported from China to the 
United States, as well as to Europe. They have made 
but little progress in the useful arts and sciences during 
the last 100 years, except by borrowing from Europe ; 
while the progress made in Great Britain, France, Ger- 
many, and some other countries of Europe, and in the 
United States, in the natural and chemical sciences, and 
in inventions, have been truly wonderful. 

In public works of utility, China was, at the end of 
the 1 8th century, without an equal in the world. The 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 2%$ 

great Imperial Canal extends from the Peiho river, below 
Pekin, to the Meling Mountains, south of the Yang- 
tsekiang river ; and another canal commences on the 
south side of that chain of mountains, and extends to 
Canton — making an internal channel of communication 
by canals and river navigation from Pekin to Canton ; a 
distance of over 1,500 miles, with the exception of a few 
miles land transit over the Meling Mountains. That 
portion of the Imperial Canal lying between the Hoang- 
Ho and the Yang-tsekiang rivers, was made as early as 
the 7th century, and the northern part of it was made in 
the 13th century ; and yet no canal in the world, even at 
this day, equals it in length, depth, or width, in magni- 
tude or in importance. 

Canals abound in China ; they are said to number 
more than 400. They are extensively used for the triple 
purpose of transporting products and merchandise, carry- 
ing passengers, and irrigation. 

The Great Wall, nearly 1,500 miles in length, erected 
more than 2,000 years since, to defend the country 
against the incursions of the Tartars, was a work of 
wonderful magnitude — indicating great industry, power, 
and perseverance, and exhibiting considerable mechanical 
and engineering skill and talent. 

The Chinese are an inventive people. They originated 
and invented all the arts and sciences, methods and pro- 
cesses, tools and instruments of industry they have ; 
and also all their laws and institutions, language and 
learning, ideas and philosophy, and everything in use 
among them, except their religion, which they borrowed 
from Hindostan and Thibet. While the nations of Eu- 
rope have constantly borrowed from each other, and 
science and art, philosophy and law, literature and re- 
ligious creeds have been a common stock, the Chinese 
have originated everything for themselves, and borrowed 
nothing but their religion. 

They originated the art of rearing the silkworm, 
making silk and silk goods, invented the processes of 
making paper from cotton and linen rags and other 
vegetable substances, and also the art of making and 
ornamenting porcelain ; which several arts the Europeans 



286 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

acquired from them. They also invented the arts of 
printing, the processes of making and using gunpowder 
and cannon, and the mariner's compass, long before they 
were known in Europe. With the exception of the 
higher mathematics and astronomy, the natural, moral, 
and military sciences, language, literature, and theology, 
law and government, the fine arts and the art of naviga- 
tion, they were in advance of every country of Europe, 
even as late as the 17th century. 

There can be no doubt that they were in advance of 
the Europeans in agriculture, in general industry, in 
making canals, roads, and bridges, and other internal 
improvements, and in nearly all the useful arts. 

Sec. 6. Religion and Government, Education and 
Character of the Chinese. 

The Chinese have never had much religion : their re- 
ligion has sat very lightly and loosely upon them, and 
generally had very little influence over them. They 
have always had more morality than religion. The doc- 
trines and precepts, views and learning of their great 
moral and political philosopher, Confucius, have had 
great influence upon the government and upon the 
people, including professors of religion of all sects, for 
more than two thousand years. The greatest part of the 
Chinese who profess any religion are Buddhists ; many 
of them are followers of the Grand Lama of Thibet ; a 
few millions are Mahometans, and a few thousands are 
Christians ; but a large portion of them are mere moral- 
ists, and followers of Confucius — professing no religion, 
and having no fixed belief in the immortality of the soul. 

The Chinese have as much parental and filial, conjugal 
and domestic affection, and family feeling and regard 
for relatives, as the people of Christian nations generally 
have ; but having very little religious principle or feel- 
ing, and not being in the habit of cultivating habits and 
feelings of benevolence and humanity, they have very little 
moral feeling, moral sense, or moral sympathy for persons 
not connected with them by the ties of blood, affinity, or 
friendship ; and very little moral regard for truth or 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 287 

honesty— which with them seems to be the result of 
policy, education, and habit, rather than moral or religious 
principle. The cruelties practised by the government as 
well as by the insurgents, during the late rebellion, 
show a great want of moral feeling ; but no greater than 
was exhibited by the ancient Greeks and Romans ; by 
Catholic bishops and their zealous partisans, from the 
end of the 4th to the middle of the 17th century; and 
not much exceeding that of the Puritans of Massa- 
chusetts, during a part of the 17th century. The history 
of the world does not show an instance of a more shame- 
less want of moral feeling and moral sense, than was ex- 
hibited by the massacre of St. Bartholomew, in 1572. 
Taking human life, in the execution of unjust, tyrannical, 
and cruel laws, is as inhuman as taking it without law ; 
though the agent in executing the law may not be in the 
wrong. The legislator, in that case, becomes the criminal, 
and is responsible for the cruelties practised in executing 
the law. 

Military chieftains, an excessive military spirit, and 
ambition for conquest and dominion, were the great evils 
which afflicted the Romans the most of the time, from 
the age of Sylla the Dictator, to the time of the Emperor 
Constantine ; and from his death to the final fall of the 
Eastern Empire, and, in fact, to the end of the religious 
wars in Germany in 1648, ecclesiastical ambition, dom- 
ination, and tyranny, were the bane and curse of the 
empire, and of all Catholic countries ; and popes, bishops, 
and ecclesiastics, were the great enemies of those coun- 
tries, and the principal impediments to their peace, pros- 
perity, and progress. During the first period named, 
the military spirit and military men generally controlled 
legislation and made the laws, and executed them, or 
trampled them under foot, as suited their views and pas- 
sions ; and during the latter period, the pope, bishops, 
and clergy, in a great measure controlled the legislation 
of Europe, and were and are responsible for the intoler- 
ant and inhuman laws, and the cruel execution thereof. 
From all such evil influences, the Chinese have been 
almost entirely exempt ; and that was the secret of their 
peace, prosperity, and progress, for most of the time, 



288 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

for nearly 2,000 years, when Europe was distracted with 
cruel and bloody civil wars, inhuman religious persecu- 
tions, and the march of devouring and devastating armies. 

In China, the military and ecclesiastical powers ever 
have been subordinate to the civil power ; military men 
and the clergy are subjects, not rulers nor legislators — 
subject to the laws, not above them. The policy 
of the government is peace, and to cultivate the arts 
of peace, not war and conquest ; the standing army 
is small, compared with European nations, when 
the large population is considered. It is large enough 
for police purposes, and for defence also, with the aid of a 
militia ; but not so large as to become oppressive, by 
rendering taxation excessive. 

The people of China are more generally educated than 
they were in any country of Europe, except Scotland, a 
century since. Education is the only passport to public 
employment and promotion. Young men are educated 
for public station, and must pass a rigid examination and 
obtain a collegiate or academic degree, before they get 
any office or public employment. A literary degree is 
the only evidence the government usually receives, 
that a man is qualified for office. That usage gives 
education and a literary degree, an importance that is 
not attached to them in any other country. 

The government is called despotic, because the em- 
peror holds the supreme legislative, executive, and ju- 
dicial power of the nation, and appoints, or has power to 
appoint, all the officers thereof; and can change the 
laws, to a certain extent, at his pleasure. It is a des- 
potism, however, limited and moderated by ancient laws 
and customs, which the emperor cannot disregard with 
safety. The government is divided into departments 
and bureaux, to which its powers are distributed, and 
everything in relation to it and to official appoint- 
ments, is reduced to a system, and regulated by law. 
The law is often arbitrary ; but very little is left to the 
arbitrary will of public officers. The emperor legislates 
for the empire, generally with the advice and concurrence 
of his cabinet council ; but he cannot legitimately enact 
ex-post-facto laws. He governs mostly by and through 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 289 

his officers and councils, and in accordance with law ; 
and not according to his own arbitrary will — as is too often 
the case in Mahometan countries, and in Russia. The 
rights of the people are protected by a full code of laws, 
which prescribe the powers and duties of all classes of 
public officers, the powers of taxation, and the modes of 
procedure in the courts of justice ; and the laws are re- 
published every four years, with such new laws as may 
have been enacted. 

Crimes are not numerous, and there is reason to 
believe that the people are generally well protected in 
their persons and their property. They enjoy a large 
measure of civil and religious liberty, but no political 
liberty, and have no participation in the government. 

In 1864 the Protestants had 42 missionary stations in 
China, occupied by no less than 1 1 1 missionaries ; the 
Catholics have been estimated at 100,000. 

The favorite Chinese virtues, which are constantly in- 
culcated by the government, are industry and peace, order 
and respect for the laws, and for parents ; and it has been 
very truly said that " industry, tranquillity, and content 
are unusually prevalent with the bulk of the population." 
They are also a remarkably chaste people. 



Sec. 7. Causes of the Slow Progress of the Chinese. 

The Chinese have developed a civilization of their own 
■ — a peculiar type of civilization — very different from the 
European types. They must be a people of a high order 
of natural intellect — equal perhaps to any people of 
Europe. This is shown by their inventions, and their 
great achievements ; and yet they have made but little 
progress, during the last 100 years and upwards, com- 
pared with several nations of Europe. Can this be ac- 
counted for, consistently with the idea that they are 
equal in natural intellect with the. people of Europe ? I 
think it can. The following causes have operated to im- 
pede their progress : 

1st. The density of the population a century and 
more since, and the want of fields of employment for the 
natural increase of the inhabitants. 



29O MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

2d. Their isolation, want of much intercourse with 
other nations ; and also the want of neighbors of equal 
capacity, from" whom they could borrow inventions, and 
discoveries in science, and communicate them — as Eu- 
ropean nations do. 

3d. The want of a representative system of legislation, 
and the participation of the people in the affairs of the 
government, both national and local. 

And lastly, the plausible but mistaken policy of the 
government, in disregarding entirely the superior quali- 
fications of practical men and distinguished business and 
professional men, and conferring public employments 
and political promotion exclusively on theoretical men — 
on scholars only. 

The influence of the representative system of legisla- 
tion, of popular institutions, and of commerce upon the 
progress of nations, has been heretofore discussed, in 
Chapter XXII. The last cause assigned as an impedi- 
ment, needs farther illustration. 

The graduates of the academies and colleges, who are 
supposed to be the only persons fitted for office, are gener- 
ally weli trained in the schools, and have a sufficient amount 
of theoretical knowledge ; but have no practical knowledge 
of the business of life, nor of the proper application of 
the rules and principles which they have been taught. 
Thought and exercise of mind, in connection with prac- 
tice, are necessary to discipline and mature the mind, to 
produce wisdom, as well as to train and discipline the 
organs and muscles in harmony with the mind — which 
is necessary to produce habit and skill in action. It is 
impossible to acquire wisdom or skill in the business of 
life, without practice, and considerable experience, ob- 
servation, and thought. No man can be qualified for 
high official station, without large experience ; nor for any 
official station, except a mere scribe, without some ex- 
perience. 

But the idea of the Chinese seems to be, that a man 
must acquire experience in office, by filling the lower 
grades of office, and rising from one grade to another. 
That does very well for the common grades of executive 
office, but is insufficient (as a general rule) to qualify a 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 29I 

man for great legislative functions, or high judicial 
offices. No man can become a great lawgiver, or a first- 
class legislator, without some practical knowledge and 
experience of agriculture, the mechanic arts, manufac- 
tures, or commerce, about which he is to legislate — or 
of the law, which regulates the rights of property, and 
the business relations of life ; and has had much obser- 
vation and thought upon such subjects. Public debate, 
free and full discussion, and large intercourse with 
practical business men, whose interests are affected by 
legislation, are also necessary, to mature laws, and avoid 
provisions, details, and forms, which will impede indus- 
try and business. Industry, commerce, and business of 
all kinds may be checked, delayed, and impeded, and 
often turned into new channels, by unwise legislation — 
by minute regulations, and the requirement of useless 
forms in doing business. Hence only practical and ex- 
perienced men are fit for legislators. 

Great enterprises and extensive business operations 
usually require the association of numerous persons and 
large capitals, and require organization also, and laws to 
regulate the organization — similar to the English and 
American corporations. All the great industries of a 
country must be organized according to law ; and it re- 
quires practical and experienced men to frame laws upon 
such subjects. 

To realize how the Chinese system would work in our 
country, we must imagine the present legislative system 
of our government, and the system of popular elections 
also abolished, and the whole power oflegislation and of ap- 
pointing all officers, vested in the President of the United 
States ; and the rule established that cabinet and bureau 
officers, judges of the supreme and other courts, and all 
executive and administrative officers shall be appointed 
from graduates of colleges and universities — including 
bachelors of law, college-educated clergymen, and grad- 
uates at the West Point Military Academy, to the ex- 
clusion of all practical and distinguished lawyers and 
merchants, farmers and manufacturers, bankers and 
business men, who have never received a literary degree. 
The success of our government has depended upon the 



292 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

fact that popular elections generally secure practical and 
experienced men, whose abilities, acts, and history com- 
mend them to popular favor. What would become of it, 
in the hands of literary and mere theoretical men, without 
experience in the business affairs of the people, even 
with a legislative department ? 

The principal strength and practical wisdom of the 
House of Lords in England, comes from the men raised 
to the peerage, after they have distinguished themselves 
as lawyers or merchants, manufacturers or bankers, or 
in some other practical sphere of life. Nine tenths of 
the hereditary peers, though they may be graduates of 
universities, are of no practical account in the House of 
Lords. 

The Chinese system has the elements of regularity 
and harmony, law and order ; but very few of the ele- 
ments of progress. It was developed and came to ma- 
turity much earlier than the modern systems of Europe 
and America. China was in advance of Europe in al- 
most everything, except language and navigation, even 
two centuries since ; but the government, being in the 
hands of mere theoretical men, resists all change. It 
resists the influences of practical men, and the changes 
which are silently wrought, in many countries, by new 
usages and customs, introduced by business men. It 
has changed very little, and made very little progress, 
during the last 200 years, for the reason, among others, 
that it discards the advantages derived by European and 
American governments, from the employment of men 
whose minds have been matured by experience in busi- 
ness, and who have attained distinction in some indus- 
trial or professional employment of life. 

Theory alone is generally barren of any valuable im- 
provement or discovery. Practice and theory combined 
are necessary, to produce inventions and discoveries, im- 
provements and progress, of value to the human family. 

Sec 8. Probable Future Destiny of the Chinese. 

The inventions and improvements, great industry and 
prodigious achievements, great wealth and immense 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 293 

numbers united under one government, and the prosperity 
and present condition of the Chinese as a nation, all 
contribute to show that they are truly a wonderful people, 
of great natural powers of intellect. All they need to 
develop their powers, is sufficient contact and inter- 
course with the commercial nations of the world ; the 
means of acquiring a knowledge of the inventions and 
sciences, learning and arts, and the religion of Europe 
and America; the introduction of railroads and loco- 
motives ; and new and enlarged fields of employment for 
the people. All these things they are now in the way 
of acquiring, and will acquire gradually. 

The small island of Hong-kong, about 9 miles long 
and 8 broad, lying at the mouth of the Bay of Canton, 
was captured by the British in 1841, and ceded to Great 
Britain in 1842 ; and there are now 14 Chinese ports 
open to foreign commerce and the entry of foreign 
vessels and merchants — including the ports and great 
cities of Canton, Amoy, Fout-chou, Ning-po, and 
Shanghae. Steam navigation has been introduced, and 
is used between Hong-kong and Canton, and a line of 
steamships has been established between San Francisco 
and China. 

The introduction of railroads and locomotives into 
China and Mantchooria, Southern and Eastern Mongolia, 
and Thibet, will make the coal mines and forests, wood 
and timber of their great ranges of mountains available, 
and give a stimulus to industry and enterprise, commerce 
and improvement, in all those countries, such as they 
have never yet felt, and contribute largely to increase 
their productive industry and population. 

At the time of taking the census of the United States 
in i860, there were 41,443 Chinese emigrants in Cali- 
fornia ; and thousands have been coming annually since 
that time. China is supposed to have more inhabitants 
than the whole of Europe, and can send out from two to 
three hundred thousand emigrants annually, without re- 
ducing the population of the mother country. Great 
numbers of emigrants have gone also to Cochin-China, 
Siam, and Burmah, where they constitute a large 
portion of the mechanics, merchants, and traders, miners 



294 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

and workers in the metals. In California they become 
miners, and work at all kinds of common labor ; and 
some of them are merchants. They live frugally, work 
hard and cheap, and are docile and submissive, quiet and 
industrious laborers. As laborers they have made the 
most of the western end of the Great Pacific Railroad, 
and will come east as that road progresses. Being vastly 
more industrious and efficient laborers than the negroes, 
and willing to live more frugally and work cheaper, the 
probability is that they will soon be introduced into the 
whole country between the Pacific Ocean and the Mis- 
sissippi river, and also into the Gulf States ; that the 
emigration to the United States from China will soon equal 
that from all Europe ; and that the Chinese and their 
descendants in the United States, will number several 
millions within half a century. They may be useful in 
introducing the cultivation of the tea plant, and in various 
branches of mechanical and manufacturing industry, as 
well as in the capacity of common laborers. Their labor 
is greatly needed here, and the Chinese emigration may 
be of great importance to our country. There is no 
reason to doubt that they and their descendants can be 
Americanized, and that they will make good and valuable 
citizens. 

The gold fields of Australia have attracted great num- 
bers of Chinese emigrants ; and the Chinese in the 
colony of Victoria, in 1864, numbered over 30,000. They 
have gone to nearly all the British Australian, Oceanic, 
and West India colonies ; and they seem destined 
to form an important element in nearly all British 
colonies, in hot and warm climates. The Chinese and 
the Coolies from Hindostan, are rapidly taking the places 
of the sons of Africa and their descendants — being much 
the most intelligent and efficient, as well as industrious 
laborers, and more economical and provident races of 
people. 

The policy of the Chinese government is peace ; and 
the feelings and sentiments of the people are all in favor 
of peace, and averse to war. Wherever they emigrate, 
their influence will be in favor of peace, and opposed to 
aggressive warfare ; and being immensely numerous, 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 295 

they may yet exercise a salutary and powerful influence 
upon the human family — in repressing the military spirit 
and ambition of the nations ,of Europe and America. 
What a wonderful contrast between the character and 
policy, the history and present condition, and the proba- 
ble destiny of the Chinese, and the Turks and other 
Mahometan nations ! 

The Chinese present a remarkable example of a nation 
becoming great and prosperous by peaceful industry and 
domestic commerce, without much foreign commerce or 
intercourse with other nations. They are now entering 
upon a new theatre of action ; and there is reason to 
believe that their exports and imports will increase 
rapidly, and that they are destined to occupy a very im- 
portant place in the future commerce and history of the 
world. 

Sec. 9. Thibet. 

Thibet is a large country of interior Asia, which com- 
prises over 650,000 square miles. The population has 
been variously estimated at from six to eleven millions. 
With the exception of some portions of Peru and 
Ecuador, it is the highest inhabited country in the 
world. Two thirds of its boundaries consist of lofty 
chains of mountains — being the Himalaya on the south 
and southwest, and the Kuenlun on the north. It is a 
very mountainous country — consisting of elevated table 
lands, plains, and valleys, from 8,000 to 10,000 feet above 
the sea — with numerous mountains rising from 3,000 
to 4,000 feet above their base, and from 13,000 to 
14,000 feet above the sea. Some peaks of the Hima- 
layas rise to an elevation of 20,000 to 26,000 feet above 
the sea. 

The great rivers Indus and Ganges, the great rivers 
of the kingdoms or empires of Birmah, Siam, and Cochin 
China, and the two largest rivers of China, all have their 
sources in Thibet. 

The parts of the mountains elevated more than 12,500 
feet above the sea, are covered with perpetual snow, and 
the climate is cold, though Thibet lies in the same latitude 
as Palestine and Northern Egypt. Lying at so great a 



296 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

distance from the ocean, the quantity of rain that falls 
annually upon the central table lands, plains, and valleys 
is very small, and the climate is excessively dry ; the 
country parched with drought much of the time, and the 
cold in winter is intense. 

The mountains and table lands are generally barren 
and destitute of forests, on account of their coldness and 
aridity. There are scattering trees and groves along the 
rivers and watercourses, but a very great deficiency of 
timber and fuel. Murray says : " The general character 
of the soil is bleak, barren, and poor ; wheat and barley 
can be grown only in a few favored situations, and often 
fail of coming to maturity. Even the herbage (the most 
valuable product), though it reaches a tolerable height 
during the rainy season (from March to September), 
suffers severely by arid and cold winds, which blow during 
the remaining part of the year, when it often dries up 
and crumbles to dust. Yet the mountain pastures support 
numerous flocks and herds." 

Thibet is fit only for a grazing country, and the quan- 
tities of grain and vegetables grown must be small. It 
has no mines of much value ; not much wood and timber, 
and no coal ; no navigable rivers or facilities for commerce ; 
and its manufactures are few, rude, and small in amount. 

The natural resources of Thibet are very small, when 
compared with the extent of the country ; it being five 
times as large as the islands of Great Britain and Ire- 
land. But a very large portion of its surface consists of naked 
rocks, arid and barren hills and plains, and mountains 
covered with snow the most of the year. There is reason 
to believe that its natural resources have been pretty 
fully developed and improved, during the last 140 years, 
since it became subject to China. It is not possible for 
it to support a very dense and large population ; though 
it is probable it may have 8,000,000 of inhabitants, and 
possibly it may have 10,000,000. 

Sec. 10. Chinese Tartary and Mongolia. 

The western part of the Chinese Empire, lying east 
of and adjoining Independent Tartary, and south of the 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 297 

Thian-Shan Mountains, is generally known as Chinese 
Tartary ; but it is sometimes called East Turkestan, and 
also Little Bucharia. It comprises over 500,000 square 
miles. It is under a military government, known as the 
government of Thian-Shan-Nanlu. 

The northwestern part of the Chinese Empire, lying 
north of the Thian-Shan chain of mountains, and com- 
prising about 300,000 square miles, is known as 
Soongaria. It is generally treated by geographers as 
the western part of Mongolia ; but it is under a distinct 
military government, called the government of Thian- 
Shan-Pelu. It was conquered by the present Tartar dynasty 
of China, and annexed to the empire in the year 1759. 

The population of these two provinces or countries, 
containing about 800,000 square miles, is stated in the 
American Annual Cyclopaedia for 1866 (title, China) at 
only 1,000,000, while that of Mongolia is stated at 
3,000,000. Mongolia contains the great Desert of 
Gobi, which comprises nearly half of it ; and it may well 
be doubted if it contains even twice as many inhabitants 
as the two provinces of Chinese Tartary, and Soongaria, 
which probably have 2,000,000 inhabitants, if the popula- 
tion of Independent Tartary be not greatly over-estimated. 

Mongolia, exclusive of Soongaria, comprises about 
1,100,000 square miles, and the population is generally 
estimated at 3,000,000^ It is bounded west .by Soongaria 
and Chinese Tartary, south by Thibet, southeast by 
China proper, east by Mantchooria, and north by the 
Russian possessions. 

Chinese Tartary, Soongaria, and Mongolia, form the 
great central basin of the continent — consisting of ex- 
tensive plains and table lands, elevated from 2,000 to 
3,000 feet above the level of the sea, interspersed with 
ranges of hills and valleys, nearly surrounded by lofty 
mountain chains, and almost divided into two basins by 
the Thian-Shan Mountains. Nearly all the rivers and 
streams of that vast basin — comprising more than 
1,500,000 square miles — fall into lakes, or are lost in the 
sands of the desert, and never find their way to the 
ocean. That fact alone shows the deficiency of rain and 
the extreme aridity of the country. 

13* 



298 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

Lying at a great distance from the Indian and Pacific 
Oceans, and from any great interior body of water, there is 
a great deficiency of rain ; and consequently there is a 
deficiency of springs and brooks, rivers and permanent 
streams of water, and of forests, wood, and timber ; and 
the vegetation is also scanty ; though there are many 
districts in the valleys and along the rivers which fur- 
nish considerable pasture for the flocks and herds of the 
inhabitants — the most of whom are wandering nomades, 
dwelling in tents. 

There is a part of Mongolia, bordering on China, which 
is the best and most fertile part of it, into which many 
Chinese have settled, who devote themselves to agricul- 
ture and the mechanic arts ; and they have taught many of 
the Tartars to cultivate the earth. Wheat and other 
grains and vegetables are grown in those regions. 

The exhalations from the Caspian and Aral Seas, con- 
tribute largely to increase the fall of rain and the moisture 
of the climate of Independent Tartary ; and the Black 
Sea has some influence also. But Chinese Tartary and 
Mongolia have no such advantages ; and hence they have 
less rain, fewer rivers and permanent streams of water, 
less wood and timber, and much less fertile land than 
Independent Tartary. Even Chinese industry and skill 
can do very little in such countries, which offer no at- 
tractions to -Chinese emigrants. They prefer to go to 
the gold fields of America and Australia, rather than 
emigrate to such barren and desolate regions. Frosts are 
so common in summer, that it is difficult to raise vege- 
tables in the great central basin of Mongolia and Chinese 
Tartary, except in very favorable situations ; and the cli- 
mate is too dry and the soil generally too poor and barren, 
to produce much grain, even with Chinese cultivation. 



Sec. 11. Mantchooria. 

The part of Mantchooria lying south of the lower part 
of the Amour river, and all that part of it lying north of 
that river, was ceded to Russia in 1854. The present 
Chinese Mantchooria, bounded south by Corea, the 
Yellow Sea, and the Great Wall, west by Mongolia, east 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 299 

and north by the district ceded to Russia, contains about 
400,000 square miles, and the population is estimated in 
the New American Cyclopaedia at 7,000,000. 

Situated on the Yellow Sea, near the Pacific Ocean, 
and between the 40th and 53d degree of latitude, 
Mantchooria is well supplied with rains, and is a well- 
watered country, having a moist climate and an abundant 
vegetation. Having ranges of mountains upon its eastern 
and western borders, which cool the air, the climate of 
the north parjt is pretty cold, and the south mild and 
temperate. The central and northern part is watered 
by the Amour river, and its branches and tributaries. 

The northern part, and, in fact, the greatest part, of 
Mantchooria, is said to be covered with forests ; but the 
southern part, adjoining China, is well improved, and 
much of it highly cultivated. Many Chinese have settled 
in Southern Mantchooria, and instructed the Tartars in 
agriculture. The Mantchoos are not nomadic, like the 
Mongols, but are employed in agriculture, raising stock, 
hunting, or fishing, according to circumstances. 

As the dominant race in China, the Mantchoo Tartars 
are dispersed all over the Chinese Empire, as civil and 
military officers and soldiers ; and yet there is reason to 
believe that Mantchooria has greatly improved, and the 
population increased, during the last two hundred years, 
since its connection with China. The Tartar princes 
have acquired the learning and civilization of the Chinese, 
shown a high order of intellect in the government of a 
great empire, and have introduced many of the laws and 
institutions, arts and usages, and much of the learn- 
ing and civilization of the Chinese, into the country of 
their ancestors. 

When the central and northern parts of Mantchooria 
shall have been connected with the Yellow Sea and 
China by two or three great chains of railroad, with 
branches, the forests, wood, and timber will be of great 
value ; and much of the timber may be transported to 
China, and become of great importance also to the 
Chinese and Chinese industry. Such roads will give a 
stimulus to industry and improvement hitherto unknown, 
and contribute to the future settlement and high culti- 



300 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

vation of nearly the whole of that great country — which 
may, perhaps, at some future time, sustain five to eight 
times the present number of inhabitants. 



Sec' 12. History and Achievements of the Tartars. 

All central Asia, from the Sea of Japan on the east, 
to the Caspian and Black Seas, were occupied (from the 
earliest periods of history) by nomadic tribes of the same 
general character and habits. No matter what may 
have been the differences in their origin, their nomadic 
habits, frequent migrations, and sometimes into the same 
countries, and their final subjection by Genghis Khan 
and his sons to the same government and laws, assimi- 
lated them, and made them substantially one people. 
Serving together in the same armies, under the Mongol 
rule, they all became Tartars. 

At and before the Christian era, they were known to 
the Romans as Scythians ; a branch of them, known as 
Huns, under Attila their king, invaded the Roman Em- 
pire and ravaged Italy in the 5 th century; and in the 
nth century, a branch of them from the vicinity of the 
Caspian Sea, called Seljook Turks, invaded, conquered, 
and long held dominion over Persia and Afghanistan. 
Another branch, called Mongols, from the country far 
east of the Caspian, known as Mongolia, under Genghis 
Khan and his sons, in the 13th century, invaded and 
conquered China, the western parts of all those nomadic 
regions since known as Tartary, and also Persia and 
Afghanistan, and established Mongol governments and 
dynasties in all those countries. They also took Bagdad, 
and put an end to the empire of the Saracens in the year 
1258. 

In the 14th century, the Mongol dynasty in China was 
overthrown by a Chinese prince, who became emperor, 
and established a new dynasty known as the Ming 
dynasty, by which the Mongols were driven out of China ; 
and they returned to Mongolia. Timour, or Tamerlane, 
a prince of the same race, coming from the country east 
of the Caspian Sea, taking advantage of the dissensions 
among the descendants of Genghis Khan and their re- 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 301 

verses of fortune, overturned their government in the 
country now known as Independent Tartary, and 
conquered Persia, Afghanistan, Northern Hindostan, and 
a part of Turkey in Asia, and also the southern part of 
Russia, and died on his march to attack China. 

Early in the 16th century, the Mongols, under Baber, 
a descendant of the great Tamerlane, conquered Afghan- 
istan, invaded Hindostan, achieved a victory over the 
Emperor and ascended the throne of Delhi in the year 
1526. He and his descendants conquered nearly the 
whole of Hindostan, established the Mogul or Mongol 
Empire and dynasty, and held dominion of the country 
until the latter part of the 18th century, when the most 
of it fell into the hands of the British. 

Early in the 17th century the Mantchoo Tartars, from 
the country lying directly north of China and along the 
Great Wall, began to make successful incursions into 
and invasions of the empire ; and after a series of inva- 
sions and successful battles, they finally overturned the 
Ming dynasty, and established a Tartar dynasty, which 
has ruled China from about the middle of the 17th cen- 
tury until the present time. 

When the chief or king of the Mantchoos became 
emperor of China, his former dominions of Mantchooria 
were annexed to and became a part of the Chinese Em- 
pire. The Mantchoo Tartars being a warlike people, 
and the Tartar princes who achieved the conquest of 
China deeply imbued with a military spirit and ambition 
for dominion, and possessed of great power, they soon 
subjected and annexed to the Chinese Empire the whole 
of Mongolia, and what is now known as Chinese Tartary, 
or East Turkestan. Early in the 18th century, Thibet 
became subject to China ; and about the year 1758, they 
conquered Soongaria and annexed it to the Chinese Em- 
pire. Here the victories of the Tartars end. 

A short history of the Ottoman Turks, a branch of 
the same race of nomads, has been heretofore given. 

This short summary of the history of the Tartar 
princes, shows their great military achievements and 
the very influential part they have acted in the history 
of the world. They have shown great genius for war, 



302 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

and been great conquerors ; but their movements have 
ever been attended with plunder and devastation, butch- 
ery and cruelty, an utter disregard of justice and hu- 
manity, and generally characterized by great blindness 
to sound national policy. They have been destroyers, 
not builders nor improvers. 

The Tartars have never made an invention in the 
mechanic arts, nor a discovery, nor an advance in science, 
of any kind, that history gives any account of. Nor have 
they ever originated any law or usage, institution or 
learning, of the slightest value to the human family. 
All their arts and learning, laws and usages, of any value, 
have been borrowed from the Chinese and Persians, and 
from the Hindoos and other nations. 

During their residence in China, in the 13th and 14th 
centuries, the Mongol princes and many of the people 
were educated there, and deeply imbued with Chinese 
learning and civilization, which subdued the most of 
their wild and turbulent, barbarous and military spirit, 
assimilated their feelings and opinions, sentiments and 
habits to those of the Chinese, and, to a very great ex- 
tent, changed the character of the people. While the 
Mongol dynasty ruled China and Persia, Mongolia and 
all Tartary, from the Sea of Japan to the Black Sea, 
many of the arts, laws and customs of the Chinese and 
Persians, were carried into the countries and among all 
the tribes of the Tartars ; and when the Mongols were 
driven out of China, they carried with them the arts and 
learning, usages and civilization which they had acquired 
there, and spread them throughout the great central 
plateaus of Asia. 

The influence of Chinese education and civilization 
have been the same upon the Mantchoo Tartars, since 
their conquest of China, that it was upon the Mongols 
when they ruled that country. 

While Mahometanism is generally professed by the 
inhabitants of Independent Tartary and Chinese Tartary, 
the most of the inhabitants of Mongolia and Mantchooria 
profess the religion of the Grand Lama of Thibet. 

The nomads of Tartary and Arabia, and everywhere, 
and the Mahometans also, have generally been enemies 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 303 

to industry and the security of property — enemies to the 
peace of nations — to all permanent improvements and 
civilization — and enemies to humanity and Christianity. 

Pagan nomads are susceptible of instruction and im- 
provement, and may be reformed ; but Mahometan no- 
madism produces a fixed state of mind and habit, and is 
like an incurable disease. It generally renders a people 
incapable of receiving instruction. These truths may be 
illustrated and proven by referring to the histories of 
the Mongol and Mantchoo Tartars, and to that of the 
Ottoman Turks. The nomadic pagan Mongols were 
greatly improved by their residence in China ; and such 
has been the case also with the pagan nomadic Mant- 
choos. But the nomadic Mahometan Turks have, for 
several centuries, occupied the fine provinces of the 
Eastern or Greek Empire, without being influenced by 
their intercourse with the Greeks, and other Christian 
nations of Europe. All the improvements and reforms 
made by the Turks, have been forced upon them by 
Christian nations, during the last fifty years. Nomadism 
and Mahometanism are both terrible evils, and when 
united, the evils are doubled. The union of the two pro- 
duces the worst state of society that ever existed on the 
earth. 

What a wonderful difference between the Tartars and 
Turks, and the Chinese ! between the indolence and 
general ignorance and poverty of the Tartar and Turk, 
and the steady habits and industry, intelligence and 
prosperity of the Chinese ! The former have genius for 
war only, and the latter for peaceful industry, improve- 
ments, and the arts of peace. 

Sec. 13. Corea. 

The Kingdom of Corea consists of a peninsula and 
some adjacent islands, lying between the Yellow and 
Japan Seas, from 33 J- deg. to the 43d degree of latitude. 
It is over 600 miles in length, and from 150 to 250 miles 
in breadth; and has an area of over 100,000 square miles. 
Malte-Brun says it is nearly as large as Italy (120,000 
square miles), and the maps generally show it to be fully 



304 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

as large. The population has been estimated at 
10,000,000 to 15,000,000. It is estimated in the New 
American Cyclopaedia at 10,000,000 to 12,000,000. 
Considering the area, situation, reported fertility and 
condition, when compared with China, 10,000,000, or even 
12,000,000, does not seem like an extravagant estimate. 

It is a mountainous country, and the mountains con- 
tribute to render the climate cool ; but lying in the same 
latitude with Northern China, and nearly surrounded 
with water, all but the very elevated mountain lands 
must enjoy a temperate climate. It produces fruits, 
wheat, rice, millet, cotton, silk, ginseng, tobacco, and 
hemp ; and the mountain pastures support great numbers 
of horses and cattle. The mountains of the north are 
said to be covered with vast forests. 

The inhabitants are of Mongol extraction, resemble 
the Chinese in manners and customs, and appear to 
have borrowed their civilization and institutions, and also 
their religion, from China. They are mostly Buddhists. 
Like the Chinese and Japanese, they carefully exclude 
foreigners from their ports, trade only with China and 
Japan, and very little is known of their country. 

The government is tributary to China, but otherwise 
substantially independent. The king is despotic — there 
being no limit to his authority, except the hereditary 
power of the nobles, or chiefs. 

Malte-Brun says " the soil is fertile and well culti- 
vated ; " that " the Chinese have introduced their arts, 
their sciences, and their language into Cornea ; " that " the 
nobles exercise, in their respective districts, a very op- 
pressive feudal power ; " and that " the soldiery are very 
numerous? Hence the people must be more oppressed 
by the government, by taxation, by the nobles, and by 
the military, than they are in China. The oppressive 
features of the government must be of Tartar and mili- 
tary origin, and not of Chinese origin. 

Sec. 14. The Islands of yapan. 

The area of the Japanese Islands is very imperfectly 
known. Niphon, the largest and most important, has 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 305 

an area estimated at over 100,000 square miles ; Kiusiu, 
16,000 square miles ; and Sikokf, 10,000. Those three, 
and some small islands in the vicinity, constitute Japan 
proper. But the Japanese have conquered and colonized 
the Island of Jesso, or Yeso, containing about 30,000 
square miles ; and also the Kurile Islands, and a great 
number of other small islands, which increase the aggre- 
gate area of the empire to about 170,000 square miles. 
The four principal islands lie between the 3 2d and the 
46th degree of latitude ; and enjoy a considerable variety 
of climate — including warm, temperate, and cool climates ; 
but no parts of those islands are cold, except the elevated 
situations on the mountains. 

The population has been variously estimated at from 
twenty to fifty millions. Their form and features show 
that they belong to the same Mongol race as the Chinese, 
from whom they appear to have borrowed their civiliza- 
tion and arts, and many of their customs and policy. 
The religion of the most of the people is a modification 
of Buddhism, of which there are various sects, and many 
followers of Confucius. 

The government seems to be a federal monarchy, limit- 
ed by ancient laws and customs, and very similar to that 
of France and Germany during the middle ages — there 
being a great number of hereditary princes, who exercise 
sovereign powers in local and domestic matters, within 
their respective dominions. The laws are severe and 
well administered, and crimes few. 

The Japanese are in most respects equal to the Chinese 
in the useful arts, agriculture and manufactures, and in 
education and learning, science and improvements, in- 
dustry and commerce. In no part of the world is ag- 
riculture carried to a higher degree of perfection than in 
Japan. Malte-Brun says, " Every spot is under cultivation, 
with the exception of the most impracticable mountains." 
On the sides of steep hills, stone walls are raised, which 
sustain plots of ground sown with rice, or with vegetables. 
Rice is the principal grain." 

Being surrounded with the ocean and the Sea of Japan, 
the climate of the islands is moist, and supplied with 
sufficient rains to make the lands generally fertile, and 



306 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

vegetation abundant. They have rock-bound coasts, 
which protect them from the violence of the ocean, with 
numerous indentations and bays, harbors and havens for 
the protection of vessels. The country is full of hills and 
mountains ; but the mountains are not generally so ele- 
vated as to contain much waste land. Murray says, the 
" inequalities of surface are no more than necessary to 
supply the moisture requisite in so hot a climate ; and 
an ample proportion of tJie surface of yapan consists of 
rich valleys and extended plains y on which all the articles 
of tropical produce grow in the utmost abundance. Streams 
pouring down from the heights, traverse the plains in 
endless numbers, and in every direction." 

Such facts indicate that the four principal islands of 
Japan, are nearly as densely populated on the average, 
as China ; and that they probably have from thirty to 
thirty-five millions of inhabitants. The Japanese are 
truly a great people, and all they need are the useful arts 
and inventions, sciences and improvements of Europe 
and America, including railroads and locomotives, and 
new islands and territories to occupy — to enable them to 
become again a progressive people. 

Sec. 15.. Farther India — or India beyond the Ganges. 

Great Britain has acquired by conquest and cession a 
portion of Farther India, comprising the former kingdoms 
of Aracan and Pegu — and the province of Tennesserim ly- 
ing along the western coast, and at the mouths of the Ira- 
waddy and Saluen rivers. The remaining countries, still 
independent of British authority, have an area of over 
600,000 square miles — being about half as large as Hin- 
dostan, and nearly half as large as China. Including 
Laos, a portion of which is subject to each of the ot.her 
three, it is divided into three kingdoms or empires ; 
1st, Birmah in the northwest ; 2d, Siam in the southwest ; 
and 3d, Anam, or Cochin-China, in the east. 

Birmah, since the cession of its maritime provinces to 
Great Britain, has an area of about 190,000 square miles, 
and a population which has been generally estimated 
from three to four millions. 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 2>°7 

Siam, including a part of Laos, which is subject to it, 
has an area of about 200,000 square miles, and a popula- 
tion variously estimated at from three to eight millions. 

The Empire of Anam or Cochin-China includes the 
former kingdoms of Tonquin, Cochin-China, and Cam- 
bodia, and a portion of Laos, which is subject to it. Ac- 
cording to Morse and several maps which I have con- 
sulted, it must have an area of about 240,000 square 
miles. The population has been variously estimated at 
from five to twenty millions. 

Considering the area and climate, the natural resources 
and condition, the state of the useful arts and industry 
of those countries, the various estimates, and the popu- 
lation of England and France during the middle ages, 
my estimate of their population is higher than is usually 
made. It is, 

For the Birman Empire 4,000,000 

" Siam and its dependences 6,000,000 

" the Empire of Anam and its dependences 14,000,000 

Total for the whole country 24,000,000 

The whole of Farther India except the north half of 
the Birman Empire, lies in the torrid zone, between the 
Bay of Bengal and the Chinese Sea, and has a moist 
climate — having generally a fall of rain annually of from 
60 to 90 inches ; which makes vegetation remarkably 
rank and luxuriant ; and yet it is generally as healthy as 
any country in the torrid zone, except those that are 
situated on elevated table lands. The valleys of the 
rivers, which are frequently inundated, have a soil in- 
exhaustibly rich ; but have a hot, sultry climate, the in- 
habitants are debilitated and subject to fevers, and hu- 
man life is precarious, and generally short. On the 
high lands the climate is more temperate, and the air 
more bracing and salubrious, the people have more 
energy, and life is generally more enduring. 

The Irawaddy, Saluen, Menam, and Cambodia, four of 
the longest rivers in Asia, run through the whole country, 
from north to south. It has also the Tonquin, and 
several other navigable rivers, besides a great num- 



308 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

ber of navigable tributaries of the four great rivers 
named. 

There is a range of mountains, generally of from 3,000 
to 5,000 feet in height above the sea, lying between each 
of those great rivers, and also between the Irawaddy and 
the Burrampootra, and between the Cambodia river and 
the eastern coast ; which usually slope down gradually 
to the rich valleys of those noble rivers ; the tops and 
sides of them being covered with forests — containing 
large quantities of valuable timber, of which the teak 
tree is said to surpass the English oak, for ship-building. 
The hills and mountains being of moderate height, are 
no more than sufficient to give a proper degree of di- 
versity to a tropical country, cool the atmosphere, and 
produce some degree of variety in the climate. At 
present, they furnish a large amount of surface densely 
covered with wood and valuable timber ; and when the 
timber shall have been mostly cut off, the high lands will 
supply many rich mountain pastures ; large areas of 
good table lands, lying from one to four thousand feet 
above the sea, well adapted to growing rice and other 
grains ; and also many mountain-sides that may be ter- 
raced, and made valuable for cultivation. There are 
mines of iron, tin, copper, and lead ; and the precious 
metals are found in small quantities ; but the mines are 
very little wrought. 

The lands are generally rich and productive ; and it is 
believed that there is comparatively little waste land in 
those countries, which is not susceptible of improvement 
and cultivation, if the same labor and skill were em- 
ployed in improving and cultivating them, that the 
Chinese and Japanese usually employ in their own coun- 
try. The natural resources of those countries for agri- 
cultural purposes, are probably greater, in proportion to 
their extent, than those of Hindostan, China, or Japan ; 
and if so, they are capable of supporting a more dense pop- 
ulation. 

Those countries have more than two thousand miles 
of sea-coast, numerous fine harbors, and more river navi- 
gation than any other great country in the world, in pro- 
portion to their extent. They have great facilities for 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 3O9 

foreign commerce, and more extensive natural facilities 
for internal commerce upon the rivers, than any country 
of Asia ; and greater than almost any country in the 
world. 

Such are the natural resources and capacities of India 
beyond the Ganges. The inhabitants resemble the Mon- 
golian and Chinese races in their figure, general physiog- 
nomy, complexion, and small oblique eyes ; and " hence 
(says Malte-Brun) we may safely consider them as of 
the same original stock." Perhaps one fourth part of 
the present inhabitants of the Empire of Anam or 
Cochin-China, and one eighth part of those of Siam, are 
from China, or the descendants of Chinese emigrants, 
who settled in those countries within the last five 
hundred years ; thousands of whom married native women. 
But their few wants, the want of schools and education, 
the heat of the climate, and the absence of pressing ne- 
cessities to stimulate industry, have rendered the de- 
scendants of the Chinese nearly as indolent and inefficient 
as the aboriginal inhabitants. 

Nearly half of the Birman Empire lies north of the 
tropic ; and the most of the empire is an elevated coun- 
try, has a temperate and salubrious climate, and the in- 
habitants are more robust than those of Siam and Cochin 
China ; but being in the interior of the country, they en- 
joy inferior commercial advantages. 

Sec. 16. Government and Religion— Civil and Social 
State of India beyond the Ganges. 

Murray says the government of all those kingdoms is 
a pure despotism. The state officers compose a council 
of state, but entirely subject to the monarch, and remov- 
able at his pleasure. " The laws (he says) are chiefly 
borrowed f7vm Hindostan and China ; they are well com- 
bined, executed with strictness, and a rigid police is 
maintained. The Birmari laws are of Hindoo origin? 
" The military strength (he says) of those kingdoms con- 
sists almost entirely of a feudal militia." " Their arms are 
mostly swords ', lances, and cross-bows ; though they have 
collected a considerable number of fire-arms, but these 



310 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

are mostly muskets, condemned in the English arsenals. 
The only exception is in Cochin-China, where European 
officers in the king's service have effected considerable 
improvements." " In Cochin-China a regular army has 
been organized and trained in the European manner," 
since the king obtained the aid of French officers and 
arms, in the year 1790 ; which enabled him to conquer 
the kingdoms of Tonquin and Cambodia, and annex them 
to his dominions. 

The religion of those countries was borrowed from 
Hindostan, and consists of a modified form of Boodhism. 
It is mostly ceremonial and speculative, and has very 
little influence upon either the morals, the maimers, or 
the character of the people. There are some Christians 
in Tonquin, Cochin-China, and Cambodia, and a few 
Mahometans in Birmah. 

McCulloch says, on the authority of White, that in the 
Empire of Anam "theft is universal, and murders not un- 
common ;" " that all travellers agree in the want of chastity 
among unmarried females ; " and that " their open prosti- 
tution neither degrades them in public opinion, nor prevents 
their becoming married? As to Birmah he says, 
"slavery, and especially the selling of women, is general ; 
polygamy is allowed ; marriage though a civil contract, 
is respected ; and divorces are common. Females are 
allowed as much liberty as males ; yet infidelity among 
those that are married is rare ; though chastity among the 
others is little practised or appreciated? As to the 
Siamese, he says, they are " decidedly lower in civiliza- 
tion than tJie Anamese or Birmese? Again, he says, 
" Slavery is common (in Siam), and some chiefs have hun- 
dreds or even thousands of slaves. Persons are sold 
into slavery for debt ; and men may sell their wives and 
children at pleasure? Murray observes, " The Siamese 
are said to be sluggish and indolent, destitute of courage, 
candour, and faith? 

McCulloch says the people of the Empire of Anam 
" are intelligent, without much originality or invention ; 
but exhibiting a very great aptitude for imitation ; " that 
" they are sprightly, good humored, always laughing and 
chattering, volatile, capricious and changeable, vain, mild 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 311 

and docile? I may say, that these characteristics very 
generally apply also to the Birmese and Siamese ; to all 
the half-civilized people of the torrid zone ; and with the 
exception of the word intelligent, they apply also to the 
late negro slaves of our Southern States. They are all 
deficient in energy and stability of character, in industry 
and perseverance, in moral sense and chastity, in inde- 
pendence of thought and the higher order of reasoning 
powers, and in talent for organization ; and entirely des- 
titute of inventive talent. 

The low grade of civilization, demoralized condition 
of the people, and defectively organized governments of 
those countries, including Aracan and Pegu (now British 
provinces), have rendered their dynasties and govern- 
ments very uncertain and changeable — depending for 
their efficiency mostly upon the personal qualities, talents, 
and energy of the monarch or prince in power ; and ever 
since they became known to Europeans (more than three 
centuries ago), they have been subject to frequent revo- 
lutions, civil wars, changes of dynasty, and wars between 
adjoining kingdoms and peoples. Their wars and rev- 
olutions have often been attended with great cruelties 
and barbarities, and contributed largely to impoverish 
and exhaust those countries, to depress industry and im- 
provement, to increase the power of the successful sov- 
ereigns, and to prevent the increase of the population. 
Their records are a little better than those of Hayti, 
Mexico, and Central America have been during the last 
fifty years ; but very similar in their character. 

Sec. 17. Arts and Industry of the People, and 
Commerce. 

Murray says " Cultivation is very generally diffused, 
and is conducted in the west (Birmah) on the Indian 
model, and in the east (the Empire of Anam) on the 
Chinese ; but it is not practiced in the same perfection, 
or with the same patient industry, as by either of those 
nations. The sugar and pepper of Siam are chiefly raised 
by Chinese settlers. Domestic animals are little used 
in cultivation." " Manufactures exist only on a limited 



312 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

scale, and in a rude form ; the raw materials which the 
country affords being worked up mostly by the family 
itself, for domestic use. The commerce of those countries 
is also limited? 

McCulloch says of Anam, " Rice forms the main article 
of culture. Sugar-cane is cultivated by the Cochin- 
Chinese only. Raw silk is produced in large quantities 
in Tonquin and Cochin-China. The ground is but in- 
differently tilled. Agricultural labor is almost wholly per- 
formed by women ; they guide the plough, which is drawn 
by a buffalo, plant the rice, build and repair tJie cottages, 
etc., and are entrusted with all the household concerns." 

Again McCulloch says, " In most manufactures the 
Anamese are very far behind, and are superseded by tJie 
Chinese, from whom they derive most of tlteir useful 
articles. They cannot temper iron nor steel, print calico, 
nor make a matchlock." He says, " The Chinese are the 
butchers, tailors, confectioners, bankers, money-changers, 
and peddlers of the empire, and are met with in all tJie 
towns? 

Of Siam, McCulloch says, "The Siamese have made 
very small progress in the useful arts. The ordinary 
mechanics are, in fact, usually natives of China or Cochin- 
China. In no one useful art have the Siamese ever at- 
tained distinction. They make no fabric that can bear 
to be compared with the cottons of Hindostan, the silks 
of Birmah, or the porcelain of China. Their gold and 
silver trinkets, plate and articles of zinc, tin, and brass, 
are all imported from CJiina, or obtained from Chinese 
settlers. It is through the ingenuity of the latter, that the 
iron ore, with which the country abounds, has been of late 
years rendered available. At present a good deal of 
malleable iron ore is produced, and at Bangkok there 
are several extensive manufactories of cast-iron vessels ; 
but these are wholly conducted by Chijiese. The latter 
have also introduced the culture of sugar, now become a 
staple product. The cutlery and tools in use among the 
Siamese, are of the rudest and simplest description." 

" Architecture (in Siam, he says) is in the same low 
state as the other arts. The houses are nearly all of the 
same fragile materials, among which the bamboo and 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 313 

Nipa palm-leaf are the principal ; and it is only in the 
capital, or in the other towns, that any are to be seen 
constructed of brick and mortar, and roofed with tiles. 
The bridges, even at the capital, consist only of planks, and 
nowhere do we observe even an attempt to construct an 
arch. The absence of public roads is not less remarkable. 
There are but two of any conseqtience in the kingdom? 
But internal river navigation is extensive, cheap, and 
commodious, and supplies the place of many leading 
roads. 

What a tale such facts tell ! Only two leading roads 
in a kingdom more than twice as large as Great Britain, 
and nearly as large as France. Not much industry or 
activity, trade or commerce, can exist in any country 
without numerous roads. Farmers and mechanics, man- 
ufacturers and miners, as well as merchants, must all 
have roads to carry their products to market. There is 
a canal 180 miles in length in Cochin-China, but none 
in Siam. 



Sec. 18. Condition of the Country and of the People — 
compared with CJiina and the Chinese. 

The largest parts of those countries consist of dense 
forests and half-improved lands ; while as much of China 
is improved as the best interests of the nation will admit 
of, and nearly all the lands are in a high state of cultiva- 
tion. The inhabitants of those countries are an indolent 
people — the Chinese are remarkably industrious. The 
former are enervated in both mind and body, by the in- 
fluence of a hot climate, indolence, and the absence of 
many wants to stimulate them to exertion ; while the latter 
are invigorated by a more temperate climate, and con- 
stant industry and effort to supply their wants. The 
former are generally uneducated and ignorant ; while the 
latter are mostly an educated and intelligent people. 
The Birmese, Siamese, and Anamese originated nothing, 
but borrowed everything. They borrowed their arts and 
learning, their tools and implements of industry, and all 
their laws and institutions, except a few rude customs. 
On the contrary, the Chinese originated everything they 

u 



314 MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 

have — their religion only excepted ; and borrowed noth- 
ing except that. The former have no inventive talent, 
and no talent for philosophy or science ; while the latter 
have shown great philosophical talent in their social and 
political organization, and in their laws and moral phi- 
losophy, and developed more inventive talent than any 
people on the earth, prior to the sixteenth century. 

Those countries have as rich a soil, as great natural 
resources, and as great natural facilities for commerce, 
and are capable of supporting as large a population, in 
proportion to their area, as China ; and yet the latter 
has a population from five to six times as dense, and 
four or five times as much industry and commerce, in 
proportion to their numbers, as the former. The people 
of all those countries being of the same race as the 
Chinese, as is generally believed, what cause or causes 
can be assigned for the wonderful differences between 
them, other than the differences of climate, and the en- 
ervating and depressing influences of a hot country ? * 
Tonquin, bordering on China and filled with Chinese 
emigrants, is more imbued with Chinese civilization, 
more advanced in the useful arts, and more advanced in 
industry also, than Cambodia or Siam. There is very 
little difference between the Siamese and the Chinese in 
complexion, features, and general physiognomy ; but in 
intellectual capacity, acquirements, inventive talent, and 
industry, the difference between them is greater than it 
is between the former and the negro races of Africa. 

The time may come when those countries may have 
from an hundred to an hundred and fifty millions of in- 
habitants, more highly cultivated than any people now 
living in the torrid zone ; but to effect such results, and 
to conduct the government and the most important and 
extensive business and industrial operations of such a 
people, the artificial elements and the living agents of 
civilization, must be borrowed from higher latitudes, more 
temperate climates, and more highly civilized countries ; 
and a constant succession of educated and intellectual 
agents from more favored countries, will be required. 
No artificial element of 'civilization ever originated in an 
* See ante, pages 185 to 195. 



MONGOLIAN COUNTRIES. 



315 



intertropical country — except on the elevated table lands 
of Mexico and Peru, which enjoy a temperate climate ; 
and when such elements have been borrowed and accli- 
mated, they must be frequently renewed from more favored 
climates. The civilization of hot tropical countries, is 
never self-sustaining. 

All the progress ever made, or that ever will be made in 
Siam, or in the Birman and Anamese Empires, came, 
and must come, from borrowed elements, introduced by 
intelligent agents and emigrants, who transplanted them, 
and put them in operation ; though those countries are 
the most highly favored of any in the torrid zone. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH COLONIES AND POSSES- 
SIONS IN ASIA AND AUSTRALIA, AFRICA AND THE 
ISLES OF THE OCEAN. 

Sec. I. Hindostan — and its Natural Resources. 

Hindostan, lying between the 8th and the 35th de- 
grees of north latitude — about half of it is in the torrid 
zone — two-thirds of it has a hot climate, and one-third 
of it a warm climate. It is about as large as China ; has 
over 3,000 miles of sea-coast, many fine harbors, three of 
the largest rivers of Asia, a large number of smaller navi- 
gable rivers, which furnish great facilities for commerce ; 
and with the exception of a considerable district east of 
the central part of the Indus (known as the Indian Des- 
ert), it is one of the best-watered countries in Asia. 

With the exception of the Indian Desert, the rains in 
Hindostan are generally abundant in the course of the 
year ; but the most of the country having a hot climate 
and a wet and a dry season, irrigation is often necessary 
to save the crops during the dry season, and bring them 
to maturity. There are, however, in almost every district 
of Hindostan, rivers and streams which furnish sufficient 
water for irrigation when dammed, and the water re- 
tained in reservoirs, and skilfully managed for such uses ; 
and the dams, canals, and reservoirs for irrigating pur- 
poses are numerous, and often great and expensive works. 

Hindostan has very extensive table lands and plains, 
elevated from one to three thousand feet above the sea ; 
which are generally well watered and productive, or 
capable of being made productive by industry, skill, and 
irrigation. It has also great numbers of large and rich 
river valleys, of which the valley of the Ganges is the 
largest in the world; and with the extensive valleys, 
plains, and table lands drained by its tributaries, and con- 



HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 2> l 7 

nected with it, its magnitude and fertility is not equalled 
by any district on the eastern continent, except the great 
plain of Northeastern China. ' 

Having generally a much hotter and more enervating 
climate than China, and much more of it needing the 
aid of irrigation, it is not so favorably situated as 
China, for industry. It has also more worthless sand 
hills, sterile lands, swamps and marshes, and lands in- 
jured by floods, than China, in addition to the district 
known as the Indian Desert ; and yet it has a very large 
amount of rich and productive lands ; numerous and 
large forests ; a large supply of wood and timber ; and 
considerable mineral wealth — including one district in 
which great quantities of coal are mined. Perhaps it 
may be safe to say that, taking its agricultural and 
mineral resources, and its forests and facilities for com- 
merce into the account, its natural resources are about 
four-fifths as large as those of China. In climate, natural 
resources, and facilities for commerce, it compares better 
with Farther India, than with China. 

Sec. 2. Area and Population of Hindostan, and the 
British Possessions in Asia. 

No accurate census has ever been taken of Hindostan ; 
but the operations of the government, the system of taxa- 
tion, leasing lands and collecting rents and taxes, the 
surveys of the lands and the country, time and observa- 
tion, and more extended commercial relations, all con- 
tribute to render the recent official estimates of the pop- 
ulation of the several districts, better approximations to 
accuracy than those that were made from thirty to fifty 
years since. Hence we may regard its official estimates 
and reports made in 185 1, of the area and population of 
the several districts of country under the immediate 
government of the Presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and 
Bombay, as approximating to accuracy ; and the official 
reports of the area and population made in 1861, as still 
more reliable. The estimates of the area and population 
of the tributary dependent and independent states and 
kingdoms, are much less reliable. The reports of 185 1 



3l8- HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

and 1 86 1 show that there has been a very large increase 
of the population of Hindostan since 1830, or else the 
population was previously greatly under-estimated. My 
belief is, that the early estimates were too low, and also 
that there has been a large increase of population since 
the introduction of steam navigation, provincial roads, 
railroads, and the arts of Europe, and a new impetus has 
been given to the cultivation of cotton and coffee, wool 
and silk, and several other tropical products. 

Murray says, in his Encyclopaedia of Geography, " The 
following estimate has been made (about 1830) in a re- 
cent parliamentary paper, of the extent and population 
of the territories under the immediate administration of 
the East India Company : 

Square Miles. Population. 

Presidency of Bengal 220,312 69,710,071 

" of Madras 141,923 13*508,535 

" of Bombay 59,438 6,25 1,546 

Total t 421,673 89,470,152 

"There were besides (he says) 85,700 square miles in 
Bengal, and 5,550 in Bombay, the population of which 
had not been ascertained ; but as they consist of rude 
districts situated on the Upper Nerbuddah and in the 
Concan, their population is not large ; and British India 
will not much exceed 90,000,000. Mr. Hamilton has 
formed,- apparently with some care, an estimate of the 
population of the subject and independent states," giving 
a list of six considerable kingdoms and states, and a 
large number of principalities, of the tributary and de- 
pendent class, having an aggregate area of 536,000 square 
miles and an estimated population of 40,000,000. 

" To this list (he says) must be added, the Island of Cey- 
lon, which is a royal colony, and contains, on 24,660 
square miles, nearly 1,000,000 inhabitants ; making the 
grand total of British India above 1,073,000 square miles, 
with a population of 131,000,000 souls." 

The states then (1830) independent of Great Britain 
were stated by Malte-Brun and Murray as estimated as 
follows : 



HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 319 

Sq. Miles. Population. 

Nepaul 53,ooo 2,000,000 

Rajah of Lahore, (the Seikhs)- 50,000 3,000,000 

The Ameers of Sinde 24,000 1,000,000 

Sindia 40,000 4,000,000 

Cashmere and other districts of the 

Seikhs 10,000 1,000,000 

177,000 11,000,000 

These estimates give for Hindostan and Ceylon an 
area of 1,250,000 English square miles, and a population 
of nearly 142,000,000. 

McCulloch, writing in 1840, says, the area and popula- 
tion of the principal divisions of British India had been 
estimated as follows : 

Square Miles. Population. 

Presidency of Bengal and Agra . 306,000 69,710,000 

" of Madras 130,000 14,895,000 

" of Bombay.. t . 68,100 6,940,000 

Island of Ceylon 24,450 1,242,000 

Provinces conquered from the 

Birmese and attached to 

Bengal, to wit : 
Assam, Aracan, Tennasserim, 

Martaban, &c 77,200 1,257,000 

606,750 94,044,000 
Settlements of Malacca and 

Singapore i,57° 154,000 

608,320 94,198,000 
Dependent States 564,610 41,278,000 

Total British India 1,172,930 135,476,000 

Independent States : 

Nepaul 53,090 2,000,000 

Lahore 60,000 4,000,000 

Sinde 24,000 1,000,000 

Total 1,309,930 142,476,000 



320 HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

A trigonometrical survey commenced in 1848, shows 
that the foregoing estimates of the area of many parts 
of Hindostan, are too low ; and the probability is, that 
the population of many of the districts were also under- 
estimated. 

The London Cyclopaedia of Geography published in 
1856 says, the areas and population of Hindostan as far 
as they were known, and as near as they could be ascer- 
tained, were as follows : 

British Possessions. Square Miles. Population. 

Presidency of Bengal 325,652 47,958,000 

Northwestern Provinces 85,571 23,800,000 

Presidency of Madras 144,889 16,339,000 

Presidency of Bombay 120,065 10,485,000 

676,177 98,582,000 

A list of 33 native states is given, which are tributary 
to, or under the protection or influence of the British 
government, which were attached to the several presi- 
dences, and the area and population thereof were stated 
as follows : 

Square Miles. Population. 

18 to Presidency of Bengal 583,404 43,054,000 

4 " Madras .... 50,637 4,691,000 

11 " Bombay ... 56,320 4,613,000 

Total of the Native States 690,361 52,358,000 

Total British Hindostan 1,366,538 150,940,000 

The States of Nepaul, Bootan, and Sindia, having an 
aggregate area of about 100,000 square miles, and be- 
tween five and six millions of inhabitants, are nominally 
independent ; but really subject to British influence, at 
the mercy of British power, and will be subjected as soon 
as they refuse to act in accordance with British interests, 
and the British sense of justice. For all valuable prac- 
tical purposes, to furnish markets for her manufactures, 
and the products of her mines and workshops, Great 



HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 321 

Britain has absorbed all Hindostan ; with the exception 
of the French possessions of Pondicherry, 188 square 
miles and 177,000 inhabitants ; and the Portuguese pos- 
sessions of Goa, and a small district of about 800 square 
miles, and 500,000 inhabitants. 

The New American Cyclopaedia, vol. ix., says the area 
of Hindostan is about 1,367,000 square miles, and the 
population is estimated at 172,000,000. For purposes 
of political administration, it is divided into three presi- 
dencies. The Presidency of Bengal comprises the country 
north of the Nerbudda river, from the Bay of Bengal 
west, to Afghanistan. Its area, including the native 
states within its jurisdiction, is about 1,000,000 square 
miles, with a population of 130,000,000. The Presidency 
of Madras comprises all the eastern and southern parts 
of peninsular Hindostan, with an area of 187,000 square 
miles, and a population of 26,000,000. The Presidency 
of Bombay comprises the Malabar coast, and the whole 
western coast on the Indian Ocean, from Goa to Beloo- 
chistan, west of the river Indus — including the provinces 
of Guzerat, Cutch, and Sinde, with an area of 180,000 
square miles, and 16,000,000 inhabitants. 

Statement of the British possessions in Asia, and the 
area and population thereof, according to the latest 
official reports (for the year 1861), as stated in the 
National Almanac and Annual Record, of the year 
1864, published at Philadelphia; with the date of the 
acquisition of each district : 

Date of Area in 

Acquisition. Square Miles. Population. 

Madras 1639 an d l 749 136,872 23,301,000 

Bombay 1661 ) 

Sinde , 1843 > 140,407 12,038,000 

Aden (in Arabia) 1839 ) 

Bengal 1795 253,000 40,852,000 

Northwest Provinces .... 114,582 30,840,000 

Oudh 1856 25,000 * 6,000,000 

Punjaub 1849 90,258 14,913,000 

Nagpoor 1853 76,250 4,650,000 

Carried forward 836,369 132,594,000 



322 HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

Date of Area in 

Acquisition. Square Miles. Population. 

Brought forward. . . . 837,369 132,594,000 
Pegu, Tenasserim and 

Martaban(Aracan)i826to 1852 70,250 1,288,000 
Straits Settlements, Ma- 
lacca and Singapore .. 1819 1,575 276,000 

Dependent States 436,037 37,606,000 

Island of Ceylon 1795 24,700 1,876,000 

Hongkong 1842 29 94,916 

Island of Labuan 1846 50 i,774 

Total of British Asia 1,369,010 173,736,690 

The English population amounted to only 125,945, of 
whom 84,000 were connected with the army. 

Assuming the estimates at different periods to have 
been very nearly correct, the increase of the population 
has been about as follows : 

Aggregate population in 1830 143,000,000 

Increase to 1840 — 3 per cent 4,290,000 

Estimated number in 1840 147,290,000 

Increase to 185 1 — 7 per cent 10,310,000 

Estimated number in 185 1 157,600,000 

Increase to 1861 — 10 per cent 15,760,000 

Estimated number in 186 1 173,360,000 

Estimated increase to 1871 — ten per cent. . 17,336,000 

Estimated population in 1871 190,696,000 

The popuation will probably continue to increase, un- 
til it gets up to 250,000,000, and possibly to 300,000,000. 

Aden is a seaport town in Arabia, on the Indian 
Ocean, ana! near the mouth of the Red Sea — which it 
commands. It was captured by the British in 1839, has 
a good harbor, and is occupied as a military station, 
stopping place for vessels, and a coaling station for 
steamers running through the Red Sea and the Indian 



HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 323 

Ocean — being about midway between Suez and Bom- 
bay. 

Singapore is a seaport town having a good harbor, 
on an island at the southern extremity of the Malay 
Peninsula ; and Malacca is a city and small district of 
country on the west side of the Peninsula, nearly a hun- 
dred miles farther north. Both of these cities are stop- 
ping places for vessels on their passage to and from India 
to China, Japan, and Australia. 

Hongkong is a small island captured from the Chi- 
nese in 1 84 1, lying at the mouth of the Bay of Canton, 
having a good harbor and an important seaport, which 
the British have named Victoria, in honor of their be- 
loved queen. 

Labuan is a small island near the northwest coast of 
Borneo — having a good harbor, and valuable coal mines. 

Aden, Malacca and Singapore, Hongkong and La- 
buan, are all important naval stations, and stopping 
places for steamers and merchant vessels ; of great con- 
sequence to the navigation, commerce, and power of 
Great Britain. 

Murray says, " It is painful to reflect that the sway of 
Britain, which has extended so widely over Hindostan, 
was in the first instance decidedly injurious. * * * 
The military adventurers, by whom affairs were at first 
chiefly administered, aimed to fulfil the boundless ex- 
pectations entertained by the Company. * * - * Every 
mode of arbitrary exaction and extortion was practiced. 
A larger revenue was raised from the country than was 
paid to the Mogul, in its greatest prosperity. * * * 
Under this system, the finest country in the world was in 
danger of being rapidly reduced to a desert ; and large 
tracts, formerly covered with waving harvests, were con- 
verted into jungle, the abode of wild beasts. The breaking 
up of the native authorities, without any effective substi- 
tute, gave a dreadful extension to the system of decoity, 
a species of robbery." 

The East India Company's monopoly and control of 
the foreign commerce, until after the year 18 14, was very 
detrimental to Hindostan. The Company also dis- 
couraged the settlement in that country, of emigrants 



324 HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

from Great Britain ; which deprived Hindostan of the 
benefit of individual enterprise — to introduce the arts 
and implements, and the industry and methods of 
Europe. 

The interior being almost destitute of roads fit for 
wagons and the hauling of loads, and entirely destitute 
of navigable canals, steam navigation, and facilities for 
internal commerce, except the rivers, they could not get 
their agricultural products to the sea-board without great 
difficulty and large expense; and therefore depended mostly 
upon domestic markets. The commerce of the country 
had been mostly confined to domestic trade, between the 
cultivators of the soil, and the domestic manufacturers 
and tradesmen. But when Hindostan was filled with 
cheap cotton goods from Great Britain, made by ma- 
chinery, which undermined and supplanted the native 
fabrics made by hand, the industry of the country was 
soon deranged ; much of it was depressed and eventually 
destroyed ; and great distress was produced. That 
state of things continued until near the middle of the 
present century, and until after steam navigation was in- 
troduced, and a number of leading trunk roads were made 
— to facilitate the transportation of their agricultural 
products to the maritime cities. These, with railroads 
and other improvements, have effected a complete revo- 
lution in the industry of Hindostan. 

What has caused so great an increase in the popula- 
tion of Hindostan since 1840 ; when there was none for 
hundreds of years, prior to 1830? The proper answer 
to that question is, that the difference in results has been 
produced by a new and different policy ; by law and 
order, peace and peaceful industry, internal improvements 
and new facilities for commerce ; by the introduction of the 
elements of European and American civilization and 
progress — which have produced a new order of things. 

Sec. 3. Roads, Canals, Railroads, and other British 
Improvements in India. 

Forty years ago, there were, in Hindostan, no naviga- 
ble canals, nor navigation by steam ; no McAdam roads 



HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 325 

and no turnpike roads ; and but very few roads of any 
kind fit for wheeled carriages, and the transportation of 
heavy products. Travel and transportation then were 
slow and expensive, in row and sail boats on the rivers, 
and upon the backs of camels and elephants, horses and 
mules. All that has been recently changed by British 
intellect and policy, and by British capital and enterprise. 

A great trunk road, from Calcutta to Delhi, a distance 
of 887 miles, was commenced in 1836"; and completed at an 
expense, including bridges, of nearly a thousand pounds 
sterling per mile, over and above convict labor. The 
same road has been continued to Peshawer, the capital 
of the northwest province of British India, 536 miles 
northwest from Delhi. 

A road from Agra to Bombay, 734 miles, was com- 
menced in 1840, and completed at an expense of about 
^330 per mile. 

A road from Bombay across the mountains to Ahmed- 
nugger, 168 miles, was completed prior to 1843, at an 
expense of about ,£500 per mile ; and the same road was 
continued to Calcutta, a distance of 1,002 miles from 
Ahmednugger. Numerous other roads, of less magnitude 
and importance, were also made ; the expenditures of 
the East India Company, for public improvements, 
during the ten years ending in 1849, being reported at 
.£3,460,930; equal to nearly $17,000,000. 

The Bengal or Ganges Canal, 898 miles in length, in- 
cluding branches, and 10 feet deep, was completed and 
formally opened April 8th, 1854; 44 miles of railway, 
out of Calcutta, having been previously made. The 
Jumna Canal, 580 miles in length, has been made since 
1854; there have been also made 450 miles of canal in 
the Punjaub (in the basin of the Indus and its tribu- 
taries) ; and other extensive works, for internal naviga- 
tion, in the southern provinces. 

Several great lines of railroad have also been made 
since 1854, and others are in progress. The principal 
lines are from Calcutta to Delhi, 1,100 miles; from Bom- 
bay to Mirzapore, 750 miles ; from Bombay to Baroda, 
150 miles ; from Madras to Bellary, 296 miles ; and from 
Madras to the west coast, 360 miles. The official re- 



326 HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

ports show that the aggregate length of railways com- 
pleted and in use, at different periods, were as follows : 

1861, Dec. 31 1,609 miles. 

1862, Dec. 31 2,356 

1864, May 31 , 2,688 " 

1865, May 31 3,186 " 

The annual report of the government director of the 
railways of British India for 1865, shows that the lines of 
guaranteed railway were 4,917 miles in length ; of which 
3, 1 86 miles were completed and opened for traffic, and 1,73 1 
miles were in the process of construction ; that the ex- 
penditures amounted to ^54,941,029 ; and that the whole 
amount required for the undertakings (including the sum 
then expended) was estimated at ^"77,500,000, sterling. 
The shareholders at the end of the year 1864 numbered 
30,080; of whom 29,303 were in Great Britain, and JJ7 
in India ; and of the latter number, 384 were Europeans, 
and only 393 natives of India. 

There were in May, 1866, no less than 3,637 miles of 
railway completed in India, and more than 2,000 miles 
were in the process of construction, on which the govern- 
ment guaranteed five per cent, interest per annum ; and 
several other lines were in contemplation. The whole 
cost of the lines completed and authorized was estimated 
at ^88,000,000 sterling — equal to about $425,000,000. 

The great roads, canals, and railways of India were 
planned, surveyed, and laid out by British intellect, and 
made with British capital. The common labor of exca- 
vating the canals, and making, the great roads and the 
tracks of the railroads, was done mostly by Hindoo la- 
borers and mechanics — under the direction of British 
engineers, who were born and educated in a cool climate. 
No part of the torrid zone, nor any part of Hindostan, 
has ever yet produced men equal to such achievements. 

The locomotives and most of the cars, and the iron 
for the rails, spikes,, and chairs of the railways, are made 
in Great Britain, giving employment to British mechanics 
and laborers, and large profits to British manufacturers ; 
and the capital stock of the railways will pay rich divi- 



HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. §2J 

dends to British capitalists in the future — perhaps for 
many centuries to come. Intellect and industry, pru- 
dence and providence for the, future, entitle people to 
the rewards which their well-directed efforts and provi- 
dence, and the natural course of events bring them. It 
is an old legal maxim, that the law favors the diligent. 
It is a great truth, that the laws of nature and the provi- 
dences of God, favor intelligence and industry, prudence 
and providence for the future. God's providence favors 
and aids the industry and providence of man. 

Sec. 4. Industry, and Exports and Imports of British 
India, at different periods. 

For more than half a century after the acquisition of 
a large portion of Hindostan by the British, free trade 
with Great Britain and the flood of British goods poured 
into that country, was undermining and crushing out the 
manufacturers and the manufacturing industry of the 
Hindoos ; and the country was gradually sinking under 
such influences, and the oppressive system of taxation 
and restriction of the East India Company. But steam- 
navigation, and the great roads, canals, and railroads 
recently made in British India, have given a spur to in- 
dustry, such as was never before felt in any Asiatic 
country. They have wrought wonderful changes in the 
industry and products, and in the condition and pros- 
perity of that country. By furnishing the means of 
quick and cheap transportation from all parts of the in- 
terior to the sea-board, and facilitating both internal and 
external trade and commerce, they have turned industry 
into many new channels ; increased the magnitude and 
importance of some branches of industry many fold ; 
perhaps nearly doubled the productive industry of Hin- 
dostan, and caused a constant increase of the population, 
during the last thirty years. 

Hindostan has not had much foreign trade, except 
with England, during the present century. 

I. Statement of the value of the imports into Great 
Britain from Hindostan, and all ports and places (except 
China) beyond the Cape of Good Hope ; and the value 



328 HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

of the British manufactures of cotton, exported to those 
countries, and also the value of all the exports to those 
countries, during the following years : 

Exports to India. 
Years. Imports from India. Of Cotton Goods. Total Exports. 

.1814 ^8,643,275 ^109,480 ^1,874,690 

l8l5 8,136,167 I42,4IO 2,565,761 

1820 5,958,526 834,118. .. 3,037,9H 

1825 6,178,775 1,036,871 3,i73,2i3 

1830 5,679,071 1,760,552 4,087,311 

1832 6,337,098 i,53i,393 3,75o,286 

1838 1,781,298 3,876,196 

II. The declared value of British and Irish produce 
and manufactures, exported to the East Indies, including 
Ceylon, Singapore and Hongkong, during the under- 
mentioned years, were as follows : 

In 1862 ^16,965,292 

1863 22,557,493 

1864 23,550,150 

1865 21,944,179 

III. Statement of the important articles contained in 
this and the next table, exported from India to Great 
Britain during the undermentioned years : 



Years. 


Coffee. 
Lbs. 


Sugar Cotton Goods. 
Cwts. Pieces. 


Silk Goods. 
Pieces. 


1833^. 
I835.. 
I 84O • . 
I842. . 
I844.. 


. 5,734,820.. 
. 5,182,856.. 
. 16,885,698.. 
. 18,206,448.. 
. 19,461,090.. 


. 153,994... 290,333. 
. 137,976... 293,580. 
• 498,730... 349,961. 
. 946,086. . . 122,193. 
. 1,108,671. . . 63,805. 


.. 298,580 
• • 382,519 
.- 556,591 

•• 334,555 
•• 543,473 


IV. 

Years. 


Hemp. 

Cwts. 


Cotton. 
Lbs. 


Sheep's Wool. 
Lbs. 


1833.. 
I835.. 
I84O. . 
I842. . 

I844.. 


.... 34,008 . . 
.... 40,854.. 
.... 55,583" 

128,642.. 

211,392.. 


.... 32,755,164 

. . . . 4I,429,OII 

.... 77,011,839 

92,972,609 

.... ^8,639,776 


3,721 

295,848 

2,441,370 

4,246,083 

2,765,853 



HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 329 

Large quantities of indigo, lac dye, shellac, pepper, 
rice, saltpetre, and raw silk, were also exported ; but the 
quantities did not increase very much, previous to 1 844 ; 
and I have no means of showing the exports of India 
since that period, of any articles except cotton and 
sheep's wool, of which the following quantities have been 
exported to Great Britain : 

Cotton. Wool. 

Years. Cwts. Value. Lbs. Value. 

1862.. 3,505,844.. ^22,042,437.. 17,959,404.. ^742,935 

I863.. 3,878,757. . 34,700,661.. 20,670,111 

1864. . 4,522,566. . 38,214,728. . 20,425,355. . 979,043 

I865.. 3,981,675.. 25,005,856. . 17,105,617. . 8ll,960 

The foregoing tables show, to some extent, the 
changes wrought in the commerce and the productive 
industry of British India ; they show that the consump- 
tion of British products and manufactures in India, have 
increased about eightfold, during the last fifty years — 
from about two and a half millions sterling annually, to 
over twenty millions sterling ; and their exports and 
means of payment must have increased in a correspond- 
ing manner. The tables also show that the increase in 
the exports of cotton has been about tenfold, during the 
last thirty years, and the increase in the exports of wool 
has been nearly equally great and surprising ; while the 
exports of India cotton goods have been declining. 

Sec. 5. Religion and Law, Schools and Means of In- 
formation in Hindostan. 

Religion and the priesthood, for three thousand years 
or more, and until a recent period, reigned in India with 
unrivalled sway ; and religious creeds and doctrines 
formed the basis of the laws and institutions of the 
country — after, as well as before the Mahometan con- 
quest. Brahminism constituted the basis of the laws of 
Menu, which established the distinctions of caste, and 
by which the laboring and all the lower classes of society 
were ruled as with a rod of iron, and more cruelly op- 
pressed than any other people upon the face of the earth, 



330 HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

who were not chattel slaves. Malte-Brun says, "Al- 
though the political and religious fabric of Brahminism 
has, from an antiquity more remote than history can trace, 
extended over Hindostan, yet we have no evidence that 
the whole country, or any very large division of it, was 
ever united under one government." " This portion of 
the human race (he says) without passing through the 
various steps of a free civilization, has been enslaved, re- 
fined, and degraded, by a political system, which is both a 
theocracy and a despotism." 

Hindostan being anciently divided into many states 
and kingdoms — different kingdoms and provinces of the 
Hindoo princes were conquered, from time to time, by 
Mahometan princes and chieftains, during the 13th, 14th, 
and 15th centuries, until the whole was subjected to the 
dominion of the Mahometans ; who established the su- 
premacy of the Koran and Mahometan law, and imposed 
onerous taxes and burthens upon the Hindoos — but left 
them in the enjoyment of their religious rights and priv- 
ileges, and of their ancient laws and customs also, to a 
very great extent. And the British have very properly 
left the Hindoos and Mahometans in the enjoyment of 
their religious opinions and creeds, and modes of wor- 
ship, and of their ancient laws and customs also, so far 
as is consistent with British supremacy, the proper ad- 
ministration of justice, the punishment of crime, and the 
preservation of order. Without such a system of tolera- 
tion, it would be impossible to preserve the peace of the 
country. The laws of caste have been so far modified 
by British legislation and English law, that no forfeiture 
of rights or privileges can be enforced against an offend- 
ing Hindoo, by virtue of their ancient laws and customs. 
That was required by justice and a proper regard for the 
rights of persecuted Hindoos, as well as by sound policy. 

The Hindoos have adhered to their religion with more 
tenacity than any other people in the world ; so much 
so that, amid all the oppressions and tyranny of their 
Mahometan conquerors and masters, during several cen- 
turies, very few of them became Moslems ; and the Ma- 
hometan population at this day, is estimated at only from 
ten to twelve millions. There are also a few hundred 



HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 33 1 

thousand Parsees or Guebres, descendants of the ancient 
Persians, who, adhering to their ancient religion 
(Magianism), fled from Persia into India, amid the per- 
secutions of their Mahometan conquerors. 

English settlers are increasing in numbers, acting in 
the capacities of engineers and mechanics, planters and 
business men, teachers and clergymen, as well as mer- 
chants and public officers. They carry with them 
English methods of doing business, English manners 
and customs, and the English language and learning ; 
and their influence, blended with that of British laws 
and institutions, English schools and the Gospel, Eng- 
lish books and newspapers, and the regular administra- 
tion of justice by British officers, is producing a pro- 
found effect upon the Hindoo and Mahometan mind and 
character. Under such influences, Brahminism and 
Mahometanism will rapidly pass away — mostly within 
half a century, and give place to Christianity ; and a 
modified British civilization, adapted to a hot climate, and 
to the condition of a dependent and subordinate people, 
will be formed in that country. 

While under Hindoo princes, there must have been 
schools for the education of the Brahmins, and the 
higher castes and wealthy classes of the people ; but 
none for the education of common laborers and me- 
chanics ; and the condition of things continued the same 
under Mahometan rule, and until a very recent period. 
The English have been very slow to establish schools 
anywhere — to educate the laboring classes, or any class 
except the wealthy. I have no means of giving the edu- 
cational institutions of any part of India except the 
Presidency of Madras ; in which there were 983 schools, 
having 39,100 pupils under state inspection, in 1865 ; 
28,402 of the pupils being in non-government schools, and 
only 3,963 of the whole being girls. The pupils are classed 
in Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia for 1866 as follows : 

Europeans 418 

Eurasians 2,694 

Native Christians 6,963 

Hindoos 24,579 

And Mahometans 4446 



332 HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

Universities and colleges have also been established in 
India. The number of candidates for admission at the 
Calcutta University in 1861, was 1,307 ; of whom 43 
were Mahometans and 75 Christians. The number of 
candidates for admission into the University of Madras 
increased from 46 in 1857, to 2 7 2 m *862 ; of whom 112 
are Brahmins, 71 Hindoos of other castes, 29 native 
Christians, 2J Europeans, 24 East Indians, and 9 Ma- 
hometans. At the Victoria College at Agra, there were 
314 Hindoo pupils, 25 Mahometans, and 12 Christians ; 
in 35 classes, viz.: 18 English, 1 Arabic, 4 Persian, 7 
Urdu, 1 Sanscrit, and 4 Hindoo. 

Christian missions among the Hindoos are making 
rapid progress. The native Protestants of Hindostan 
and Ceylon were stated in 1852 at 112,496, and in 1862 
at 153,816 ; exclusive of 59,366 converts connected with 
the Birmese missions, at the latter period, making in all 
213,182. The Catholics in British India are estimated 
at 900,000. 

Journalism is beginning to flourish in British India — 
there being newspapers published in nearly all the prin- 
cipal cities, and daily as well as weekly journals in Cal- 
cutta and some other places. Many of the journals are 
conducted by native scholars. Numerous post offices 
and post roads have been established ; and several 
thousand miles of electric telegraph have been made. 
Many literary societies have been established, and learn- 
ing is making considerable progress among the natives. 
The number of books published by the Vernacular Lite- 
rary Society, has risen from 12,841 in 1825, to 121,669 
in the year I861 ; of which 46,783 were in the English ; 
3,147 in the Anglo-Asiatic; 62,935 in the Bengali lan- 
guage ; 5,171 in Hindoo; and the others in Arabic, 
Sanscrit, Persian, and other languages. Appleton's An- 
nual Cyclopaedia for 1863 says, there are 25 mission 
presses in India, Ceylon, and Birmah ; the whole Bible 
has been translated into 14 languages, the New Testa- 
ment into 19, and separate books into 26. In ten years 
1,634,040 copies of the Bible, and 8,604,033 tracts and 
books, exclusive of all secular and educational works, 
have been circulated. 



HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. $$5 

The means of acquiring information and education, 
both secular and religious, are increasing rapidly. Verily 
there is progress in British India, as well as in Europe 
and America ; and on a grand scale. The British 
government and people have done, and are doing in that 
country, a great work ; and in most respects a noble 
work— a work generally promotive of the industry and 
well-being of the native inhabitants, and of the cause of 
civilization and Christianity, as well as of their own 
national glory and grandeur, wealth and power. 

The field for British teachers and clergymen, trade and 
business, the learned professions and public office, in 
British India and Australia, is almost boundless ; and gives 
advantages to the educated classes of Great Britain and 
Ireland, not enjoyed by any other people on the earth. 

Sec. 6. The Hindoos compared with the Chinese. 

Almost half of Hindostan, lying in the torrid zone, and 
seven-eighths of it below the 30th degree of latitude, 
fully two-thirds of it has a hot climate, and the greatest 
part of the other third a warm climate. The elevation 
of the mountains and table-lands of the peninsula is not 
great enough to moderate the heat of the climate very 
much. Very little of China lies in the torrid zone ; it is 
interspersed with great chains of mountains, and nearly 
half of it consists of elevated table-lands ; the mountains 
and the elevation of the table-lands both serving to cool 
the atmosphere. A very little of China, about Canton, 
has a hot climate ; scarcely one-fourth part of it has a 
warm climate, and nearly three-fourths of it enjoys a 
temperate climate. 

Murray says, " the Hindoos, though by the action of the 
climate rendered as black as the negro, have otherwise 
nothing of the negro aspect? McCulloch says, " The 
European is white, the Hindoo black. The European is 
taller than the Hindoo, more robust, and more persever- 
ing. Even in the rudest states of civilization, the Euro- 
pean has exhibited a firmness, perseverance, and enter- 
prise, which strikingly contrast with the feeble, slow, and ir- 
resolute character of the Hindoo. * * * The labor of 



334 HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

one Englishman is equal to that of three ordinary In- 
dians. * * * The European is born with an inflexible 
and comparatively rigid fibre ; the Hindoo with a fibre 
more pliant and soft than that of our women. This dis- 
tinction however, is a mere affair of climate, for the 
quality supposed in this instance to be peculiar to the 
Hindoo frame, is common to the natives of every warm 
climate ; even Creole Europeans, in the very first genera- 
tion, are distinguished by it. * * * The tallest and 
most robust, but not the most active, are the inhabitants 
of the upper portion of the valley of the Ganges." 

The most of the Chinese, living in a cooler climate, 
have more rigidity and strength of muscle, greater powers 
of endurance, greater energy of character, and more 
strength to labor, than the Hindoos. In -physical 
strength and energy of character, the Chinese compare 
favorably with the French, Italians, and other nations of 
southern Europe. The inhabitants of Canton and the 
south of China, are not darker than the Spaniards and 
Portuguese ; and the greatest part of the Chinese have 
much lighter complexions. 

McCulloch says, "There are at present spoken in 
India, by the most civilized races, not less than twenty- 
five distinct languages or dialects, indicating the existence 
of as many distinct nations ; but including tribes more 
or less barbarous, at least fifty languages, indicating the 
presence of at least as many distinct tribes. Of the 
more civilized nations, eight may be said to be distin- 
guished from the rest by some superiority of civilization, 
as implied in the possession of a national literature, a 
national alphabet, superior population, superior industry, a 
greater progress in the useful arts, with the richer and 
more extensive territory which they are found to occupy." 
The most numerous people are the Bengalese, occupying 
the delta, and the lower portion of the valley of the 
Ganges ; the Hindostanese, occupying the middle and 
upper portion of the valley of the Ganges ; and the 
Mahrattas, in the central western part of Hindostan. 
The Hindostanese are said, by McCulloch, to be "physic- 
ally and intellectually the most vigorous of all the Indian 
races!' 



HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 335 

Though China is as large as Hindostan, the Chinese 
all speak the same language, with very little variation ; 
quite as little perhaps as there is in ,the dialect of the 
inhabitants of different counties in England ; and the 
written language, which is much more copious than that 
spoken, is the same throughout China. This indicates, 
and their annals show, that they have been one people, 
and formed one nation, under one government, with the 
exception of some short intervals, for thousands of years. 

The New American Cyclopaedia states that, from the 
year a.d. 220 to 260, China was divided into three king- 
doms ; and into two, from the year 386 to 590 of our era. 
With these exceptions, the Chinese are supposed to have 
been united under one government, for nearly four 
thousand years. Their union as a people, forming one 
nation, has contributed to their peace and tranquillity, 
prosperity and progress. 

As to literature, McCulloch says, there are in Hindos- 
tan, no less than eight peoples, forming at some period, 
distinct nations, each having a distinct language and 
national literature. But their literature is of very little 
value — consisting mostly of the Vedas, or sacred books 
and theological learning, works of poetry and the imagin- 
ation, and the laws of Menu — being deficient in science 
and learning of a substantial character, and entirely 
wanting in ancient history — there being no reliable or 
connected history of any part of Hindostan, previous to 
the first Mahometan invasion, in the year a.d. iooo. 
On the contrary, the Chinese have a literature truly 
national, all in the same language, rich in history, and 
the annals of the empire for about four thousand years ; 
rich also in moral, political, and social philosophy and 
law ; containing a large amount of science, and much 
valuable learning upon various subjects. 

The Chinese are an eminently practical people, and 
have been an inventive people — having great inde- 
pendence of mind and originality of thought. They 
have originated all their useful arts and sciences, laws and 
institutions, philosophy and learning, and borrowed 
nothing but their theology. The Hindoos are a simple- 
minded, credulous, and bigoted people, and easily govern- 



330 HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

ed by their priesthood— having no independence of mind 
or originality of thought ; and they have never shown 
any, except what is exhibited in their Vedas, or sacred 
writings, their system of theology, and in the laws of 
Menu. The latter establish their tyrannical system of 
caste, to which no people in a cold or temperate climate 
ever did, or ever would have submitted. Submission to 
such an unjust and tyrannical system of law, furnishes 
of itself, the most conclusive evidence of the intellectual 
weakness and irresolute character of the people. The 
Vedas, the Statutes of Menu, and the Brahminical and 
Buddhist systems of theology, all show that their authors 
had active and contemplative minds, fruitful imaginations, 
brilliant ideas and fancies, and great craft and depth of 
thought ; but they do not exhibit any great soundness 
of understanding, nor that practical, philosophical, and 
statesman-like character, which is shown in the writings 
of Confucius, and the laws and institutions of China. 
The Chinese have never been subjected to the tyranny 
of caste, nor to the despotism and curse of an ecclesias- 
tical hierarchy — claiming superiority to, and jurisdiction 
over the civil authorities ; as was the condition of the 
Hindoos for nearly three thousand years. 

But it is uncertain when, and by whom, the Brah- 
minical system of theology originated. It may well be 
doubted, if it originated with men born in Hindostan ; 
and if it did, it probably originated in the most temper- 
ate region of that great country — in Northern Hindostan 
— in the upper portion of the valley of the Ganges, 
which was the seat of empire of all the great kingdoms 
and empires of India. Northern India has had a re- 
markable history, during the last eight hundred and 
fifty years ; but tropical India never had. 

The New American Cyclopaedia says, " It is the gen- 
eral opinion of the best authorities, that the Hindoos 
were not the first inhabitants of the country, but were an 
invading race, who subdued and enslaved the aborigines, 
whose remnants are still existing in some rude tribes in 
the central and southern parts of Hindostan, and the 
distinction of castes did not exist among these people. 
* * * The Hindoos are supposed to have entered 



HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 237 

the country from the northwest, and are conjectured by 
some, to have come from the Euphrates, by others from 
the Caspian Sea. They brought with them the Brah- 
minical religion, and formed the institution of caste by 
dividing themselves into the three higher castes, of Brah- 
mins, Kshattriyas, and Vaisyas, while the conquered people 
constituted the Soodras, or servile caste!' 

This conjecture seems probable ; and if it be true, 
neither the theology of the Hindoos, nor their system of 
law, originated with natives of India ; and as they had 
more or less intercourse with the nations of Western 
Asia, it is probable that their useful arts were mostly 
carried there from more temperate regions, and origin- 
ated with more intellectual nations. There are no such 
monuments of ancient greatness and power, in India, as 
there are in ancient Assyria and Turkey, Persia and 
Egypt ; nor are there any such monuments of intellect 
and enterprise, skill and industry, as the canals and the 
great wall of China, and the terracing the sides of their 
hills and mountains, by the Chinese. 

Hindostan has always been divided into several king- 
doms and states, and generally into a great number, for 
more than two thousand years ; but having no natural 
boundaries, and there being no stability to the Indian 
governments and dynasties, their boundaries and dynas- 
ties, and the kingdoms and states themselves, were fre- 
quently changed by wars and conquests, revolutions, and 
divisions made between sons of deceased monarchs. 

The principles of government were never much de- 
veloped and understood in India ; and the organic laws, 
for the organization of their governments, were so de- 
fective, that it was impossible for a prince to maintain 
his authority over a great extent of country, unless he 
had more talent and energy of character than was com- 
mon to Indian princes. The beauty and productiveness 
of the great plains of India, the facilities for moving and 
subsisting armies, the feebleness and irresolute character 
of the people, and the weakness of the governments, all 
invited both invasions and revolts ; and hence India was 
more frequently disturbed with wars" and invasions, and 
distracted with revolts and civil wars, than almost any 

is 



338 HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

country in the world. Wars and revolts, anarchy and 
confusion, very generally reigned somewhere in Hindos- 
tan, for centuries in succession. 

Portions of India have been frequently invaded, plun- 
dered, and conquered by invading armies from Persia 
and Greece, from the shores of the Caspian Sea and Tar- 
tary, from Afghanistan, and more recently from Europe, 
ever since the age of Darius the Persian, 500 years 
before the Christian era ; and the probability is, that the 
aborigines of the country had been previously conquered 
by a people who brought with them the Brahminical re- 
ligion, reduced them to subjection, and established over 
them the tyrannical and oppressive laws of caste. There 
has never been any public spirit or patriotism, in the 
modern sense of the term, among the Hindoos ; and the 
Mahometan princes and people have but very little more 
public spirit and energy of character, than the Hindoos. 

The Chinese having made much greater progress in 
the principles of constitutional law and government, 
than the Hindoos, have long had a pretty well organized, 
strong, and stable government ; and though they were 
often disturbed by the raids and invasions of their Tartar 
neighbors, the government, with the aid of the people, 
was generally able to repel all attacks made upon them. 
The success of the Tartars in conquering China twice — 
once in the 13th and again in the 17th century, was by 
reason of divisions and civil wars among themselves, 
which were uncommon. The weaker party invited in 
the Tartars, to aid them in overcoming their opponents. 

The first Tartar dynasty in China, was overturned by 
Chinese princes and insurgents, in the 14th century ; 
and the last one was really overcome and subdued by 
the superior civilization of the Chinese — and the con- 
querors adopted the manners and customs, and conformed 
to the laws and institutions of the Chinese, and have 
never attempted to change them. 

In every view in which the inhabitants of India and 
China can be compared, the great superiority of the latter 
over the former, in intellect and industry, enterprise and 
energy of character, is clearly exhibited. It is shown in 
their history and progress, and in their condition at 



HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 339 

different periods. What cause can be assigned for the 
great and marked superiority of the Chinese, over the 
native inhabitants of India? Can any adequate cause 
be assigned, other than the difference of climate ? 

Sec. 7. Concluding remarks on British India. 

The southern half of Hindostan has about the same 
climate as Siam, Anam, and Southern Birmah ; and stands 
in the same need as those countries, of external in- 
fluences — of elements and living agents, from a colder 
climate, to raise the people in the scale of civilization. 
Like the people of every tropical country, the Hindoos 
and Mahometans seem incapable of self-government — 
and of maintaining law and order, peace and tranquillity, 
under any form of government, without external aid. 
There is very little difference between either the phys- 
ical constitution or the intellect of the Indians of British 
India, the Indians of Mexico and other tropical countries 
of America, and the Siamese, Birmese, and other natives 
of farther India. They are all low in the scale of natural 
intellect, physical power, and energy of character. The 
views of the intellectual character and want of energy of 
the inhabitants of farther India, presented in the last 
chapter, very generally apply to the people of tropical 
Hindostan. 

Though the domination of the British East India 
Company was marked with intense selfishness and great 
tyranny, for nearly a century, and often with much op- 
pression also, and in some instances with cruelty ; the 
policy of the British government and people has recently 
changed, and both Parliament and people seem now to 
realize their great and noble mission, as the guardians ; 
as well as the governors of the native population of 
India ; and who can now doubt, that British control has 
become highly promotive of the best interests and 
general good of the native inhabitants of that country ? 
It gives them peace and security, the elements of civil- 
ization and prosperity ; is raising them in the scale of 
civilization ; and planting Christianity among them — 
perhaps in the only effectual mode. And France is 



340 HINDOSTAN, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

doing the same thing, in a very similar manner, for 
Algeria. 

The English being a great and powerful people, in- 
tellectual and wealthy also, they should not allow their 
selfishness and selfish ambition, to blind their sense of 
justice and humanity. They should feel above living 
upon the inheritance or the industry, of a weak and de- 
fenceless people. But to exercise a guardianship over 
such a weak-minded people as the Hindoos, the African 
Negroes, or the American Indians — to govern them 
with humanity, and to make and administer just and 
proper laws for them and over them — to punish their 
crimes, restrain their waywardness, check their vices 
and follies, and turn them into the paths of productive 
industry, is doing them no injustice : provided, that they 
are allowed a rational degree of personal and civil 
liberty, and the enjoyment of the products of their own 
industry and care ; power over them is exercised with 
justice and humanity, and in such a manner as to pro- 
mote their industry and general welfare ; and govern- 
ment over them is not made unnecessarily expensive and 
burthensome : and provided also, that the most intel- 
lectual and provident classes among them, are allowed 
to exercise the most of the powers of local government 
— as a means of educating the race, for the future 
exercise of greater and higher powers of self-govern- 
ment. 

Such peoples, being incapable of enlightened and wise 
legislation, of the proper administration of law, or the 
maintenance of order and peace, can it be unjust or im- 
proper, to make for them proper laws, and to adminis- 
ter them in a proper and humane manner ? Must not 
the moral justice or injustice of such acts of pow r er, de- 
pend upon the character of the laws made for such 
peoples, and upon the mode of their administration? 

Sec. 8. Australia, or New-Holland — its Situation and 
Climate, Extent and Subdivisioiis. 

The great island or continent of Australia, formerly 
called New Holland, lies between the nth and 39th 



AUSTRALIA, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 34 1 

degrees of south latitude ; nearly half of it being in the 
torrid zone. The north half has a tropical climate, the 
next fourth a warm climate, and the south fourth a mild, 
temperate climate. Without a more accurate survey, 
it is impossible to calculate its area with certainty ; but 
it has been roughly estimated at from 3,000,000 to 
3,360,000 square miles. It is nearly as large as the 
Chinese Empire ; and greater in extent than the 
United States of America and all their territories, pre- 
viousto our acquisition of Russian America. 

In 1788, the British planted a convict colony on the 
east coast of Australia, on the site now occupied by the 
city of Sydney, on the south side of the harbor of Port 
Jackson, in south latitude 33 deg. and 52 min. ; and 
called it New South Wales. 

In 1850, the southeastern part of Australia was taken 
from the colony of New South Wales, and constituted a 
new province or colony, by the name of Victoria. Mel- 
bourne is its capital, and chief town. 

South Australia comprises the central part of the 
southern coast of Australia, running north to the 25 th 
degree of latitude ; bounded east by the colonies of Vic- 
toria, New South Wales, and Queensland, west by West 
Australia, and north by North Australia. The first 
settlement was made at Adelaide, now the capital and 
principal town, in December, 1836. 

The colony now called West Australia, was founded 
upon the banks of Swan river, about lat. 32 south, in 
1829. It comprises the whole of the western part of the 
continent, lying west of the 129th degree of east longi- 
tude, and more than one-third of the whole of it. 

Queensland comprises all the northeastern part of the 
continent, east of the 141st degree of longitude, and 
north of the 29th degree of latitude ; bounded south by 
New South Wales, and west by North and South Aus- 
tralia. It was separated from New South Wales in 
1859. 

North Australia comprises all that part of the con- 
tinent lying north of South Australia. It is bounded 
west by West Australia, and east by Queensland. There 
is no settlement in it of any consequence. 



342 AUSTRALIA, AND THE BRITISH COLONIES. 

Sec. 9. Population of the Australian Colonies, Tasma- 
nia and New Zealand, at different periods. 

The first cargo of 700 convicts was landed at Sydney, 
in January, 1788. In 18 10 the population of the colony 
of New South Wales was 8,293; the census of 1821 
showed that the number had increased to 29,783 ; and 
the account of the population of the colony taken in 
1828, stated them as follows : 

Males. Females. „ TotaL 

Free immigrants 2,846 .... 1,827 • • • * 4,^73 

Born in the colony 4,473 4, 2 54 8,72 7 

Freed by servitude *. . 6,137.... 1,393.... 7,530 

Convicts I4J55 1,513 15,668 

Total 27,611 8,987 36,598 

The census of 1833 showed the number as follows : 

Males. Females. Total. 

Free 22,798 13,452 .... 36,250 

Convicts 2 1,846 2,698 24,544 

44,644 16,150 60,794 

The census of the colony of New South Wales taken in 
March, 1841, stated the population as follows : 

Males. Females. Total. 

Free immigrants 30,745 22,158 5 2,90*3 

Born in the colony ... . 14,819.... 14,622.... 29,441 

Freed by servitude ... . 15,760.... 3,637.... 19,397 

Convicts 23,844 3,133 26,gyy 

Total 85,168 43,550 128,718 

The free immigrants, who went to New South 
Wales as settlers, from 1829 to 1840, both 
inclusive, were reported at 4*,794 

* This class includes pardoned convicts, as well as those who 
had served out their sentence. 



AUSTRALIA, AND THE BRITISH COLONIES. 343 

The number of convicts sent to the colony from 
1788 to 1840, when the practice of sending 
convicts ceased, was 54,383 

The population of the colony, including the ter- 
ritory now forming Victoria, was in 1850, be- 
fore the division 265,503 

The colony of Victoria had, March 2d, 1851, a 
population of 77,345 

Gold was discovered in May, 185 1, which caused a great 
excitement in Great Britain and in all the Australian 
colonies, and caused an immense rush of emigrants to 
the gold fields ; so great, that at the end of the year 1852, 
the population was estimated as follows : 

New South Wales at 208,000 

And Victoria at 15 1,000 

The account of the population of New South 

Wales taken January 1st, 1857, was 286,873 

And that of Victoria, taken March 29th, 1857, 

was , 403,413 

The population of South Australia was as follows : 

In 1840 14,610 

In 1845 22,390 

In 1850 63,700 

And January 1st, 1857 1 14,708 

exclusive of the natives or aborigines, 

estimated 'at 3,700 

No gold mines having been discovered in Western 
Australia, the increase of the population has been slow. 
There were in 1850 only 5,904, and in 1852, 8,711, in- 
cluding 705 military men. The natives were estimated 
at 1,700. 

The Island of Van Diemen's Land, now officially called 
Tasmania, has an area estimated at 26,000 square miles. 
A penal colony was settled upon it by Great Britain in 
1803 ; in 1 82 1, it had 7,185 inhabitants, exclusive of the 
natives ; and by the census taken in 1830, there were 
24,279, as follows : 



344 AUSTRALIA, AND THE BRITISH COLONIES. 

Males. Females. Total. 

Free 9,231 4,853 14,084 

Convicts 8>877 1,318 10,195 

In 1838 the inhabitants numbered 45,764, of whom 
27,631 were free, and 18,133 convicts; in December, 
1844, they had increased to 57,420, and December, 1847, 
to 70,164. The discovery of the gold fields of New 
South Wales and Victoria in 185 1, gave a sudden check 
to the rapid increase of the population of Tasmania, and 
of South and West Australia also. 

The Islands of New Zealand lie directly east of Van 
Diemen's Land, between the 35th and 47th degrees of 
South latitude — having a climate about as mild as 
France and Italy. They were discovered by Tasman, a 
Dutch navigator, in 1642 ; were visited and their extent 
and character ascertained by Captain Cook, in 1769 and 
1774 ; have been claimed and colonized by Great Britain ; 
and a colonial government was established over them in 
1 840. 

The area of New Zealand has been estimated at 
106,259 square miles. Several missionaries took up 
their abode among the natives, many years since ; and 
the islands have been frequently visited by whale vessels ; 
and a large number of Europeans had settled upon them 
previous to 1840. Murray said (in 1830) "the entire 
population is estimated by Mr. Nicholas, at upwards of 
150,000." Mr. McCulloch (in 1840), upon the authority 
of Terry s New Zealand, says, " the total population may 
perhaps be 200,000, of whom nearly 10,000 are Europeans!' 
The more accurate official report of the native inhabit- 
ants, accompanying the census of the European popula- 
tion in 1-86 1, states their numbers at 56,000. The num- 
bers of wandering savages have generally been over-esti- 
mated from two to ten fold. 

Porter estimated the European population in 1845, at 
between 3,000 and 4,000. The census taken in 1851 of 
the European population in the settled districts, showed 
that they numbered 26,656, of whom 14,996 were males, 
and 1 1,660 females. 



AUSTRALIA, AND THE BRITISH COLONIES. 345 

In 1856 they numbered (including the military) . . 48,193 
And in 1858 they numbered (including the mili- 
tary) .'. 61,193 

Gold was discovered in New Zealand in 1862, which 
caused a great rush to these islands. 

Statement of the population of European descent, of the 
several colonies of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zea- 
land, according to the censuses of 1 841-185 1, and April, 
1861: 

1841. 1851. 1861. 

New South Wales V 128,718. . .*2o8,ooo 348,546 

Queensland > 30,1 15 

Victoria ) .... 77,345 541,800 

South Australia ^16,282 ...*66,ooo *i28,ooo 

West Australia *2,ooo *7,ooo ^17,246 

North Australia not settled. 

Tasmania *5 0,000 *8o,ooo *90,ooo 

New Zealand t3,ooo ^26,655 f I0 9>36o 



Total 200,000 465,000 1,265,067 

Total in 183 1 estimated at 78,000 

Total in 1821 by census 36,978 

Statement of the European population of the Australian 
colonies at the end of the year 1864, and the number 
of schools and scholars in attendance at the latest 
returns : 

Schools. Scholars. Inhabitants. 

New South Wales. . 976 46,810 



Queensland , 

Victoria 1,019 69,619 

South Australia. .. . 240.... 11,769 

West Australia .... 

Tasmania 88. . . . 4,607 

New Zealand 



392,589 

61,640 

604,858 

147,341 
19,500 

93,307 
ti7i>93i 



Total 1,491,166 

* Those marked with a *, or stated in round numbers, are es- 
timates from reports of the census of prior and subsequent years, 
f Exclusive of 56,000 natives. 

15* 



346 AUSTRALIA, AND THE BRITISH COLONIES. 

There was a University established at the city of 
Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, in 1850, 
which is in successful operation. 

Sec. 10. The Natives of Australia and New Zealand. 

Speaking of the natives or aborigines of Australia, 
Malte-Brun says, " Perhaps no people in the world have 
made less progress in civilization. * * * Some of them 
are almost as black as the African negroes. * * * Their 
huts are rudely constructed of the bark of trees, in the 
form of kilns. The fire is placed at the entrance, and 
the interior is full of smoke and dirt. There they sleep 
promiscuously, in so far as their hostilities and frequent 
assassinations will allow. It is only in the fabrication 
and use of their weapons, that we perceive any proofs of 
intelligence. * * * Polygamy is very generally practised. 
Both sexes go naked, and have no feelings of shame." 

Murray says, " The native population belongs to the 
class of Papuas, or Oriental negroes, who occupy also 
New Guinea, and the interior of the Indian ArchijDelago. 
Again he says, "All idea of the fabled innocence of the 
state of nature must vanish, on viewing the New Holland- 
er. The state of nature is indeed complete. There is 
no society, no government, no laws ; each ma7i acts accord- 
ing to his own fancy and caprice. * * * Fishing is 
their main occupation. * * * The people were found 
wholly unacquainted either with planting, or the breeding 
of tame animals, and deriving their support wholly from 
hunting and fishing, chiefly the latter." " They have 
nothing that can be called war ; yet their whole life is 
one continuous fight? 

The New American Cyclopaedia seems inclined to 
apologize for them, but says, that, " In the native wilds 
they go entirely naked ; that they have not the use of the 
bow, an invention indicating some degree of refinement" 
[intellect] ; that they are i7iclinedto canabalism ; that the 
several tribes are engaged in frequent feuds with each 
other, principally on account of their women ; that the 
women are few in number, and the senior or head war- 
riors of the tribes pratise polygamy, which increases the 



AUSTRALIA, AND THE BRITISH COLONIES. 347 

difficulty the younger men experience in mating them- 
selves to their liking ; and that 80,000 is the highest 
number that has be&n named for the natives of that 
continent. 

McCulloch says, " The physical character of the Aus- 
tralian is not more marked by a general inferiority, than 
are his moral and intellectual attainments. * * * Of 
agriculture even in its rudest forms, he possesses not the 
smallest knowledge. * * * Their arts are confined 
to the erection of extremely rude huts, spears and fish- 
hooks, stone hatchets, a kind of shield, a wooden 7nissile y 
and a rude species of canoe.' 1 Again McCulloch says, 
" The stupidity of his nature and the inertness of his 
faculties, are evinced by his having made few or no efforts 
to increase his supply of food, or to obviate those inces- 
santly recurring attacks of famine, to which he has al- 
ways been exposed." 

Such facts should convince men of common sense, 
that there are great differences in the races of men — in 
natural intellect and moral character, as well as in ac- 
quired knowledge. I think the strongest advocates for 
" manhood suffrage " would generally hesitate to extend 
the elective franchise to men of so little natural intellect 
and intelligence, and so degraded in character, as the 
natives of New Holland. Not much progress has ever 
been made by such a people. They are always improvi- 
dent, in hot climates, habitually indolent and averse to 
labor and regular industry ; and when they come in 
contact with civilization, they adopt only its vices and 
the use of firearms, which hasten their destruction. 
The aborigines of Australia are passing away rapidly ; 
they will soon be gone, and there is no occasion for phi- 
lanthropy to shed tears over their fate ; for it is in ac- 
cordance with the providences of God. 

Of the nations of New Zealand Murray says, " They 
are tall and well formed, with large black eyes ; they are 
intelligent, have made some progress in the arts of life, 
and are united into a certain form of political society. 
These circumstances, however, have only tended to de- 
velop in a still more frightful degree, those furious 
passions which agitate the breast of the savage. Each 



34-8 BRITISH . AUSTRALIAN COLONIES. 

little society is actuated by the deepest enmity against 
their neighbors ; their daily and m nightly thought is, to 
surprise, to attack, and to exterminate them!' " Travel- 
lers (he says) agree that the New Zealanders are a noble 
race of savages, though they are clearly proved to be 
still cannibals ! " 

Malte-Brun says, " The New Zealanders live in a state 
of habitual warfare. The chiefs and tribes are respec- 
tively jealous of their rights, and go to war when these 
are slightly invaded." 

The New American Cyclopaedia says, the New Zea- 
landers " are deficient in reasort and judgment, have little 
imagination, and are seldom capable of generalizing. * * * 
In general it may be said, they have the minds of chil- 
dren, and the passions of men. * * * When found 
by the Europeans, they were divided into 18 nations, 
which were again subdivided into a number of tribes ; 
each tribe acknowledged a chief as its head. * * * 
The different nations were almost constantly at war with 
each other, arid civil wars between the tribes of a nation 
were not uncommon. These contests were carried on 
with ferocious barbarity ; the defeated tribe was reduced 
to slavery, or killed and eaten ; cannibalism being uni- 
versal." 

Here was a case of less than 60,000 savages, divided into 
18 nations, without any common government, bond of 
union, or tribunal to decide their controversies. They were 
in the condition of savages everywhere ; in Africa and 
America, as well as in the isles of the ocean. Without 
any international laws, tribunals to settle their contro- 
versies, or common government to redress wrongs 
and punish offences, they were necessarily involved in 
war much of the time. The statement of the character 
and condition of the New Zealanders, expresses the con- 
dition of nearly all the tribes of tropical Africa, in all 
ages of the world ; and of the natives of America also ; 
and with the exception of cannibalism, it expresses the 
condition and character of a majority of the Indian tribes 
of the United States, at this day. 



BRITISH AUSTRALIAN COLONIES. 349 

* 

Sec. 11. Climate and Natural Resources of Australia 
and New Zealand. 

Very little of the interior of the continent of Austra- 
lia (which is nearly as large as Europe) has been ex- 
plored ; and not much is known in relation to it. Navi- 
gators and exploring parties have sailed along the coasts, 
gone up the Murray, Darling, and Swan rivers, and pene- 
trated into the interior at a few points, from 50 to 100 
miles ; and the province of Victoria, about half or two- 
thirds of New South Wales, and the southern fourth 
part of South Australia, have been pretty thoroughly ex- 
plored. Scarcely anything is known of other portions 
of the continent, beyond 50 miles from the coast. 

The eastern part of the continent, lying between the 
tropic and the 35 th degree of latitude, embracing the 
whole of New South Wales and the southern part of 
Queensland, has been found subject to frequent droughts ; 
but the mountains arrest the clouds and produce an 
abundance of rain in most districts, in some portion of 
each year — whereby the country is generally well sup- 
plied with springs and brooks, creeks and rivers, which 
furnish the means of extensive irrigation, and of making 
the most of the lands productive. Perhaps it is very 
little more subject to droughts than the portion of British 
India — lying in the same latitude north. The province 
of Victoria, the southern part of South Australia and of 
West Australia also, and nearly the whole coast of trop- 
ical Australia, are believed well-watered, and generally 
productive countries ; having abundance of wood and 
timber. 

The southern part of Australia — lying south of the 
30th degree of latitude, has a warm temperate, and fine 
climate. It is generally very healthy for Europeans, 
and for all the domestic animals of Europe ; and well 
adapted to all the grains and grasses, vegetables and 
fruits, of Central and Southern Europe, and of England 
also ; all of which have been successfully introduced. 
These regions have also numerous and extensive grassy 
plains, which are fine grazing lands, generally well adapt- 
ed to growing cattle, and also sheep and wool. Sheep- 



350 BRITISH AUSTRALIAN COLONIES. 

growing has become a great business, and next to gold, 
wool is the largest and most important article of export 
from Victoria and New South Wales ; and much the 
largest from all the other Australian colonies, and from 
Tasmania also. 

The remarks in relation to the productiveness and 
character of the country south of the 30th degree of lati- 
tude, and to the salubrity of the climate, very generally 
apply to Tasmania also ; the climate of which is cooler, 
and more like southern Europe. The New American 
Cyclopaedia says, " The Tasmania wheat is of very supe- 
rior quality, and 45 bushels to the acre is considered an 
average crop." That quantity may be occasionally but 
not often raised ; and it shows that the soil and climate 
are both well adapted to wheat. 

On the 25th parallel of latitude, the continent of Aus- 
tralia is 2,600 miles long, from east to west, and about 1,500 
miles wide from north to south, and the annual fall of rain 
in the central part, so remote from the ocean, must be very 
small. There are ranges of mountains near the coast, 
on all sides of the continent where the interior has been 
explored ; and from the general dryness of the climate 
of the coasts south of the tropic, and the absence of great 
rivers falling into the sea, it is believed that the most of 
the interior of the continent constitutes a great arid 
basin, perhaps similar to the desert of Sahara, or the 
basins of the Caspian and Aral Seas, Chinese Tartary and 
Persia — having its own water system, and rivers falling 
into lakes — from which the water evaporates, and never 
finds its way to the ocean. 

Upon the surface of more than seven eighths of the 
earth, the quantity of rain falling annually is very nearly 
the same, in the same place ; but there are two great 
belts surrounding the earth, in which there are wonder- 
ful inequalities in the annual fall of water. These belts 
are in both the northern and southern hemisphere — lying 
between the tropics and the 31st degrees of latitude. 
They seem to be regions of alternate calms, and violent 
northern and southern winds — blowing two or three days 
in the same direction. On the north shore of the Gulf 
of Mexico, the north winds are called Northers ; and the 



AUSTRALIAN BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 35 I 

south winds in northern Africa and southwestern Asia, 
are called Simooms of the desert. 

The winds in those belts, and the clouds and water 
transported by them and precipitated in rain, are very 
irregular, when compared with other portions of the 
earth ; and hence portions of those belts are subject to 
occasional heavy rains, and to frequent long and severe 
droughts ; while other portions are called rainless re- 
gions — in which it seldom rains. All the deserts of the 
earth lie either within those belts, or at great distances 
from the ocean. 

About two fifths of Australia lies between the tropic 
and the 31st degree of latitude, in the southern arid 
belt : and the probability is, that half or more of the con- 
tinent is so arid and subject to so severe droughts, that it is 
of very little value except where it can be irrigated. 
But the* remaining half is much larger than China, and 
nearly as large as both Hindostan and India beyond the 
Ganges ; and it is probably capable of supporting two 
or three times as large a population as the whole conti- 
nent of Africa has ever yet had. 

The two south islands of New Zealand lie directly 
east from Tasmania, and the north island lies east from 
Victoria. They have the same mild and delightful cli- 
mate as those colonies. Taking into consideration their 
climate and situation, rivers and harbors, and the reports 
of the surface and soil, productiveness and natural re- 
sources, they may be reckoned among the finest islands 
on the earth. They are more than three times as large 
as Ireland, and having a milder climate, very likely they 
may be capable of supporting a population, as dense, and 
as large in proportion to their area. 

Sec. 12. Statistics of the Australian Colonies. 

Live stock in New South Wales in 1863, and in other 
colonies in 1864: 

Sheep and 
Horses. Horned Cattle. Lambs. 

New South Wales 262,554.. 2,032,522.. 7,790,960 

Victoria „ 1 1 7, 1 82 . . . 660,000 . . 8,406,000 

Carried forward 2,692,522 . . 16,196,960 



352 AUSTRALIAN BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 



Horses. 

Brought forward . . . 

Queensland 

South Australia 62,889. . 

Western Australia estimated at . . 

Tasmania 22,000 . . 

New Zealand 





Sheep and 


Horned Cattle. 


Lambs. 


2,692,522. 


. 16,196,960 


882,073 . 


• 5,665,334 


204,832. 


.. 4,106,230 


25,000. 


500,000 


89,801 . 


. 1,736,540 


249,02 I . 


• 4,945,473 



Total 3,143,249 33,150,537 



Sheep in the United States and territories in 186 
22,471,275. The extraordinary fact is here shown, that 
the Australian colonies, which were small and obscure 
settlements until within the last twenty years, have now 
about 11,000,000 more sheep than there were in the 
whole United States and territories, in i860. 

There were 109,734,261 pounds of wool, imported into 
Great Britain, from these colonies, during the year 
1865 — valued at .£8,866,356, sterling; equal to nearly 
$43,000,000. Verily the British Australian colonies have 
become the greatest -wool-growing countries in the 
world ; and are rapidly becoming the greatest grazing 
and cattle-growing countries. 

These colonies are also becoming great grain and 
wheat-growing countries. In 1864, there were raised in 
Victoria 1,889,378 bushels of wheat, upon 125,040 acres 
of land, and 3,008,487 bushels in 1865, upon 162,000 
acres. In South Australia, 4,691,419 bushels of wheat 
were raised upon 335,758 acres of land in 1864 ; seven- 
eighths of which (as stated in the British Almanac for 
1 866) was reaped by machine. The wheat crop of Tas- 
mania in 1864 was estimated at 995,352 bushels, grown 
upon 60,186 acres of land. 

The cultivation of cotton has been commenced in New 
South Wales, and grapes in that colony and in Victoria. 
In 1864, there were 945 acres employed in the grape 
culture in New South Wales, and 3,595 acres in Victoria. 

The value of the gold obtained from the mines of Aus- 
tralia and New Zealand, from 1850 to the end of the year 
1865, is stated in the Merchants' Magazine, for March, 
p. 221, at $792,000,000. 



BRITISH AFRICAN POSSESSIONS. 353 

Many leading roads and other public improvements, 
have been made in all the colonies, mostly by convict 
labor ; and convict labor has been of great consequence 
to them — so much so that Western Australia petitioned 
to have more convicts sent there. 

At the end of the year 1864, there were 259 miles of 
railway, and 2,326 miles of electric telegraph lines, in 
operation in the colony of Victoria ; and 57 miles of rail- 
way, and 1,064 miles of telegraph, in use in South Aus- 
tralia. Truly, this looks like progress. 

The health of these colonies is shown by the following 
statistics of the natural increase of the inhabitants in 
1864: 

Marriages. Births. Deaths. 

New South Wales 3,480 16,881 6,445 

Tasmania in 1863 698.... 2,998.... 1,418 

South Australia in 1863 • • ■ ••• • 5,966. . . . 2,221 

Queensland in 1863 774.... 2,221 1,275 

Queensland having a hotter climate than the other 
colonies, had more deaths in proportion to the births. 

The emigration to these colonies will be stated in 
connection with Great Britain and Ireland, from which 
it comes. 

Sec. 13. Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. 

Cape Town was founded by the Dutch in 1650 ; 
who planted a colony there, as a stopping-place for their 
vessels, in passing from Holland to their East India 
possessions. It was captured by a British naval force, 
and given up in 1 801, and captured again in 1806, and 
retained. 

Porter says the area of the colony comprises 110,256 
square miles; and gives the population in 1806, as 
follows : 

Whites and free colored 25,614 

Free blacks 1,134 

Negro and colored slaves 29,303 

Hottentots 1 7,43 1 

Total 73,482 



354 BRITISH AFRICAN POSSESSIONS. 

He gave the numbers in 1839, when the condition of 
slavery had ceased, and again in 1842 as follows : 

1839. l8 4 2 - 

Whites 68,180 68,300 

Black and colored people 7Sy°9 l 75>5^5 

Cape Town race .... 22,543 

Total 143,271 166,408 

. In the London Encyclopaedia of Geography the area 
is stated to be about 203,000 square miles, as fixed by 
proclamation of July, 1848. It gives the population by 
the census of that year as follows : 

Whites 76,827 

Colored races 101,176 

Cape Town race 22,543 

Total 200,546 

The population in 1856 has been stated at 267,096, 
and at 270,000 in the New American Cyclopaedia, which 
says, among the white inhabitants of the colony, the 
Dutch element largely predominates ; that the colored 
population consists of Hottentots, Caffres, Negroes, and 
Malays, the descendants of Malay slaves ; that the Hot- 
tentots are a weak race, lazy, shiftless, and intemperate ; 
that since they were put on an equal footing with the 
whites, by the abolition of slavery, their number has 
rapidly diminished ; that the Hottentot-half-breeds are 
more industrious ; that the negroes are still more vicious 
than the Hottentots ; that the negroes abhor steady 
labor, and prefer to sustain a vagabond life by pilfering ; 
and that the Malays are industrious, skilful, and thriv- 
ing, but passionate and vindictive. 

Two fifths of the territory of the colony is said to con- 
sist of arid ridges and sandy plains. It has a wet and dry 
season ; and strange as it may seem, though it is nearly 
surrounded by the ocean, yet it is an extremely arid 
country. It lies mostly within that arid southern belt, 



BRITISH AFRICAN POSSESSIONS. 355 

described in section 1 1 (in treating of Australia), and is 
generally parched with drought more than half of the 
year — during the warm season. The most of it is fit 
only for grazing ; crops can be raised only by irrigation. 

The colony did not flourish very much, until recently. 
England treated the colonists at first as wholly unfit for 
self-government, and unworthy of any more consideration 
than the Hindoos of India, and the natives of Africa ; 
and governed them nearly half a century, as they do the 
natives of India, without allowing them any participa- 
tion in the government. In 1833 the Negro, Hottentoty 
and Malay slaves among them, were all emancipated, 
and put upon a civil and political equality with the whites. 
This so disgusted the Dutch colonists that many of 
them resisted the measures of the government, were 
driven into rebellion, and finally left the colony — resolv- 
ing to form, and they did form, new settlements, north 
of the Orange river. The government pursued them, 
waged war upon them, and persecuted them many years, 
and they had the British and the savage Caffres also to 
contend with. But by indomitable perseverance and 
energy, they succeeded in defending themselves, and in 
forming two independent Dutch Republics ; one known 
as the Orange Republic, and the other as the Trans- 
Vaal Republic. 

Political equality between white citizens and Hotten- 
tots and Negroes, where the two latter classes are nu- 
merous, will never secure peace and order, or prosperity 
in a community ; and that great fact, the British govern- 
ment and people are beginning to learn. Wiser counsels 
finally prevailed in the British Parliament, and yielding 
to the demand of the colonists, a constitution, similar to 
the constitution of other British colonies, was granted 
to the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, in 1853 ; where- 
by the colonists are allowed to legislate for themselves, 
within certain limits, as the American and Australian 
colonists are ; and the independence of the two Dutch 
Republics has also been acknowledged. Great advan- 
tages may be expected to flow from the establishment 
of those Republics — in aiding to subdue the savage and 
hostile Caffres, and in carrying the elements of civiliza- 



35^ BRITISH AFRICAN POSSESSIONS. 

tion and Christianity into the interior of Southern 
Africa. 

The constitution granted to the colony of the Cape 
establishes equal suffrage, and makes no distinction on 
account of race or color ; but no one is eligible to a seat 
in the legislature unless he is "in possession of ,£1,000 
worth of landed property, or .£2,000 worth of landed and 
personal property together ; " and no one can be an 
elector, unless he have property worth £25. These 
property qualifications will exclude from the privileges 
•of the elective franchise, the idle and worthless Negroes 
and Hottentots, as well as worthless white men, and 
effectually exclude from office, nearly all the colored 
men of the colony, and prevent a struggle between the 
different races for the supremacy. 

Another provision is contained in the constitution, 
which is entirely new. The legislature consists of two 
chambers ; one called a legislative council, and the other 
an assembly. The colony is divided into two districts 
for the election of members of the council ; in one of 
which eight, and in the other seven members are elected 
for ten years, by general ticket. Each voter is allowed 
to vote for the whole number to be elected in the dis- 
trict, or to cast his seven or eight votes for one candi- 
date. This will enable a seventh of the voters to elect 
one member, by casting all their votes for one man. It 
will give minorities a representation and the means of 
being heard, and of having their petitions and views, and 
their rights also, fairly presented to the legislature. It 
will have a tendency to check the waywardness of par- 
tisan majorities, to moderate the violence of party spirit, 
and to secure proper discussion and deliberation, fairness 
and honesty in legislation. 

In all our American governments, the minority in 
every district, is wholly unrepresented, in the legislature, 
as well as in administrative boards ; and great favoritism 
and injustice, and often gross corruption and oppression, 
grow out of that mode of constituting legislative bodies 
as well as such boards. In my opinion, that provision 
in the constitution of the colony of the Cape, is the 
greatest improvement in constitutional law, which has 



BRITISH AFRICAN POSSESSIONS. 2>S7 

been made during the 19th century. 'It is greatly in 
advance of anything in any of the American constitu- 
tions, and probably will mark the beginning of a new era, 
in the popular representative system of government. 

British Caffraria, lying on the coast adjoining the ter- 
ritory of the colony of the Cape of Good Hope on the 
northeast, was annexed to the colony in 1866 ; and rep- 
resentatives were elected in that country, to the terri- 
torial legislature. The population of the annexed terri- 
tory was reported in 1 861, at 81,353. 

Sec. 14. The Colony of Natal. 

The colony of Natal is situated on the southeast 
coast of Africa, between the 28th and 31st degrees of 
south latitude, and is about 200 miles long on the coast — 
running back from 100 to 150 miles to the Drakenberg 
Mountains, which separate it from the Orange River 
Republic. It contains about 20,000 square miles, being 
about half as large as the State of Ohio. 

The country rises from the sea-coast in a succession 
of hills, valleys, and table-lands, to the height of about 
4,000 feet, at the foot of the Drakenberg Mountains, 
which attain an elevation of 8,000 feet above the sea. 
The different grades of elevation produce great differences 
in climate. The lower belt, about 15 miles in width, 
lying along the Indian Ocean, is said to be good for sugar- 
cane, coffee, cotton, indigo, and other tropical plants and 
fruits ; the second belt, lying from 1,000 to 2,000 feet 
above the sea, will produce the same grains, grasses and 
fruits as Southern Europe and the temperate climates of 
America ; while the higher plateaus constitute a fine 
grazing country, which produces wheat, and all the grains 
and grasses, fruits and vegetables of central Europe. 

Many of the Dutch Boors and peasants, when they 
left the colony of the Cape in 1838, emigrated to and 
formed settlements in Natal. When the British govern- 
ment in 1845, declared their sovereignty to extend over 
Natal, and sent a military force to subject the colonies to 
their authority, the more resolute of the Boors, after some 
resistance, left the country under their leader Pretorius, 



35$ BRITISH AFRICAN POSSESSIONS. 

emigrated to the north, and founded the Trans-Vaal Re- 
public ; but some of them remained in Natal. 

The New American Cyclopaedia says : " The white 
population comprises about 3,400 of British, and 2,800 of 
Dutch descent, and a small German settlement of about 
350. The colored population are Zooloos, of the same family 
as the Caffres. They are a pastoral people, and dis- 
inclined to agricultural labor ; they are as noted for 
their honesty as the Caffres are for cattle-stealing. The 
recorder of Natal states in 1859, that colonial history pre- 
sents no instance of 6,000 to 7,000 colonists, living in 
such security, amid 100,000 aborigines. * * * There 
were in 1859, seven sugar mills, of great power, in opera- 
tion. The exports of the colony amounted in 1850, to 
.£15,000; in 1855 t0 ^45,ooo; in 1859 to .£100,000; 
and in i860 to ,£140,000. "The imports in 1856, 
amounted to ,£102,513, a considerable proportion of 
wh ; ch was machinery, for the manufacture of sugar and 
flour. In 1855 there were 31 schools, attended by 1,295 
scholars." 

The government ' of Natal consists of a lieutenant 
governor (under the Governor of the Cape Colony) and 
a council of four chief officers and 12 members, elect- 
ed by the people. " The qualification for voters is the 
possession of a freehold property worth ^50, or the oc- 
cupation of a house or land at a rent of ;£io a year ; all 
voters are eligible to office." 

The population of the colony in i860, including the 
natives, is stated in the Almanach de Gotha for 1865, and 
also in the Merchants' Magazine for November, 1 864, at 
i5;,583. 

Sec. 15. Mauritius and the Seychelles. 

The Island of Mauritius, formerly called the Isle of 
France, was first permanently occupied by France, and 
settled by the French in 1734. It is situated in the 
Indian Ocean, about 20 degrees south latitude, 400 miles 
east of Madagascar, is about 36 miles in length, and 
from 18 to 27 in breadth, and contains about 700 square 
miles. It was captured by the British in 18 10. Port 



BRITISH AFRICAN POSSESSIONS. 359 

Louis, its capital, has a good harbor though rather diffi- 
cult of access. The island is said to resemble the Island 
of Jamaica in soil, climate, and productions, and is 
equally productive — producing annually large quantities 
of sugar. 

It assumed no great importance, until after the British 
acquired it. Morse's Gazetteer of the Eastern Continent, 
published in 1802, says, "The number of inhabitants 
exclusive of the military is 8,000 whites (French) and 
12,000 blacks. These black slaves cultivate the soil, 
do the drudgery, and are treated in the most cruel 
manner." 

Murray states the population in 1827 at 94,600, divided 
as follows: whites 8,000, free negroes 15,000, slaves 
69,000, and the rest troops and resident strangers. 

McCulloch states the population in 1836 at 92,147 ; of 
whom 29,612 were whites and free people of color, 61,045 
apprenticed laborers (blacks), and 1,490 strangers. 

Porter states the population in 1839, as follows : 

Males. Females. Total. 

Europeans and Africans. 69,800 .. 39,940 .. 109,740 

Indians 23,490 . . 419 . . 23,909 

Aliens and strangers. ... . . . . 1,548 



Total 135.197 

In 1838, there were 34,994 males, and 18,236 females 
of African descent, who were apprentices. 

The population in 185 1 had increased to 183,506, as 
appeared by the census of that year. The emancipated 
slaves and their families then numbered only 48,330, (as 
appears by the London Encyclopaedia of Geography) ; 
indicating that the African apprentices of 1836, and their 
descendants, had greatly decreased. 

The first immigrants from British India were 75, in- 
troduced in 1834, to supply the anticipated deficiency of 
faithful laborers, on the emancipation of the negro slaves. 
The number of immigrants from British India (generally 
called Coolies) increased rapidly from that time, and they 
now constitute the principal agricultural laborers of the 



3^0 BRITISH AFEFCAN POSSESSIONS, 

island ; and have mostly undermined and superseded 
the negro. 

The census of April, 1861, showed that the population 
was as follows : 

Number born in India 172,425 

Children born of Indian parents 20,029 

Whites, negroes, and all others 121,008 



Total , 313.462 

Increase of whites, negroes, and mulattoes since 

1839 1 1 > 2 6% 

The whites are mostly of French descent. 

The number of emigrants from India to the island in 
1865, was 20,283, of whom 14,910 were males, and 5,373 
were females. The British Almanac for 1867 says, 
"On January 1st, 1866, there were in the island 245,700 
of these Coolies, of whom 167,310 were males and 
78,390 females, an increase in the year (1865) of 14,609. 
The number employed, male and female, on sugar es- 
tates, is stated at 52,973, and the quantity of sugar pro- 
duced as 1,711,842 cwts." 

McCulloch says the export of sugar from Mauritius 
was less than one million pounds in 18 12. Since that 
time it has increased with wonderful rapidity as follows : 

In 1 8 14 1,034,294 lbs. 

" 1820 I5>524,755 

" 1825 , 21,793,766 

" 1830 69,547,778 

" 1 840 89,505,825 

Year ending Sept. 30th, 1859 218,945,643 

The New American Cyclopaedia says, 

the crop of sugar in 1845 was 102,168,000 lbs. 

And in 1855 228,480,000 lbs. 

The great increase in the sugar crop was effected by 
Coolie labor, and not by Negro labor. The population 
has become very dense, about 500 to the square mile ; 



BRITJSH AFRICAN POSSESSIONS. - 36 1 

and it is not probable that the resources of the island 
are sufficient to employ and support many more inhabit- 
ants. The experiment will be there fairly tested, of the 
relative value of African and Coolie labor ; and the 
question will soon be determined, whether a negro pop- 
ulation will sustain themselves in competition with the 
natives of India, or will gradually dwindle away. 

The government is English, like the government of 
India, without a popular element in it. It consists of 
a governor, with an executive council — consisting of the 
colonial secretary, attorney general, and the chief mili- 
tary officer ; and also a legislative council, consisting of 
the members of the executive council, the auditor gen- 
eral, treasurer, collector of customs, collector of internal 
revenue, and " seven persons, chosen from the chief landed 
proprietors of the island ; " not chosen by the people, but 
by the colonial government, subject to the approval and 
confirmation of the Queen of England. 

The Seychelles, a group of small islands more than a 
thousand miles north of Mauritius, are under the govern- 
ment of that island. Their population in 185 1 was 8,001, 
and in 1861, it had increased to 9,055. 

Sec. 16. Sierra Leone and Gambia. 

The colony of Sierra Leone is situated on the western 
coast of Africa, directly north from Liberia. It is said 
to have an area of only 468 square miles, comprising a 
promontory at the mouth of the Sierra Leone river. 
Freetown, the capital, is situated at 8 J- deg. north lati- 
tude. McCulloch says, " This colony was founded in 1787, 
partly as a commercial establishment, but more from 
mistaken and ill-considered notions of humanity ; being 
intended to consist principally of free blacks, who were 
to be instructed in the Christian religion, and in the 
arts of Europe, it was supposed it would become, as 
it were, a focus whence civilization might be diffused 
among the surrounding tribes." 

Three hundred and forty negroes were sent to Sierra 
Leone in 1787 — at the expense of some London philan- 
thropists ; in 1792, the Sierra Leone Company sent there 



362 . BRITISH AFRICAN POSSESSIONS. 

119 settlers, part of them Europeans; 1,131 were sent 
there from Nova Scotia in 1793, and others afterward, 
from time to time. 

Murray says, .£3,000,000 sterling had been expended 
in the formation and support of the colony, prior to 1829 
— when it consisted of 21,205 liberated Africans and 
their descendants, and a few Europeans. He says, " The 
Church Missionary Society have undertaken to furnish 
schools and religious instructors ; and upwards of 2,000 
children are now (1830) educated on the national sys- 
tem. * * * Notwithstanding all this, it appears true, 
that Sierra Leone has not yet made any impression upon 
Afi ica y and that there is no radius of civilization proceed- 
ing from it." The greatest difficulty seems to be the 
unhealthiness of the climate. 

Porter says, " The number of slaves that had been 
emancipated at Sierra Leone up to the year 1840, was 
70,809, of whom 20,702 males, and 16,320 females, to- 
gether 37,022, were living in the colony in December, 
1840." He says the population in 1840 was as follows : 

Males. Females. Totals. 

Whites 136 39 175 

Black and colored people 22,127. .. . 18,931.... 41,058 
Aliens and strangers . . . 2,298. . . . 1,404. . . . 3,702 

Total 44,935 

The population in 185 1 was 44>50i 

" i860 41,624 

Including a little over 100 Europeans. 

The New American Cyclopaedia says, " The total ex- 
tent of land under cultivation in 1853, was 9,414 acres." 
Such are the meagre fruits of that famous example of 
British philanthropy for the negro, and the expenditure 
of nearly $20,000,000. There are many towns in Michi- 
gan and other Western States, only six miles square each, 
having less than 1,500 inhabitants, in which more than 
half as much land is under cultivation annually, as there 
is in the whole colony of Sierra Leone. Verily, those 
negro colonists must be an industrious people ; and 



BRITISH AFRICAN POSSESSIONS. 363 

their philanthropic friends must feel proud of their in- 
dustry and progress ! 

The settlements on the river Gambia, north of Sierra 
Leone, constitute a dependency upon the government of 
that colony. The town of Bathurst is on the left bank 
of the river Gambia, at its entrance into the ocean, in 
13 deg. north latitude. 

The river Gambia and its valley was the principal seat 
of the African slave trade, carried on during the 17th 
and 1 8th centuries, by the African Company, a great 
commercial company, incorporated in England — and 
actively pursuing the slave trade with the approbation 
and encouragement of the parliament and people of 
Great Britain. 

The population of the colony of Gambia in 1 85 1, was 
as follows : 

Males. Females. Total. 

Whites 177 14 . . . 191 

Colored 2,996 2,506 5, 502 

Total 5,693 

Population in 1 860 6,939 

Sec. 1 7. Forts and Trading Posts in Guinea. 

The British, and several other European nations, have 
long had forts, and what are called factories, that is 
trading posts and stores or warehouses for goods, with 
small settlements, on the coast of Guinea — mostly on 
the coast known as the Gold Coast. Of these, Malte- 
Brun says the English have or had 14, the Dutch 15, the 
Portuguese 4, the Danes 4, and the French 3. 

The principal British forts and settlements on the 
Gold Coast, are Cape Coast Castle, Accra, Dix Cove, 
and Annamaboe. 

Cape Coast Castle, situated in north lat. 5 deg. 6 min., 
and west longitude 1 deg. 10 min., is the seat of govern- 
ment of those settlements. Dix Cove is a few miles far- 
ther west — Accra a few miles east, and Annamaboe a 
few miles nearly north from Cape Coast Castle. 

In 1853, the area of the country under the govern- 



364 BRITISH AFRICAN POSSESSIONS. 

ment of the Gold Coast settlements, was estimated by 
the governor at 8,000 square miles, and the population 
at 300,000 ; but in 1 861, the area was stated at 6,000 
square miles, and the population at 151,346. 

The Annual Cyclopaedia for 1 862 says, " In August, 
1 861, the English government took possession of the 
kingdom of Lagos (on the Gold Coast) and in 1862 es- 
tablished themselves at Whydah, the two most important 
centres of the slave trade." 

The Almanach de Gotha for 1865 puts down the area 
of those settlements at 6,000 square miles, and their 
population at 151,346; and the Merchants' Magazine 
for 1864, has the same statement. Porter says, " The 
population of the district within the direct influence of 
the British forts along this division of the coast, is rough- 
ly estimated at from 700,000 to 800,000." But that 
seems extravagant, as the commerce of these settle- 
ments is very small ; the imports for i860 being stated 
in the Merchants' Magazine at only £112,000, and the 
exports at ,£111,000. 

The British manufactures exported to that country, 
consisting mostly of arms and ammunition, brass and 
copper manufactures, cotton and woollen goods, and the 
intercourse of the British with the natives, must have ex- 
erted some influence upon them ; but we have no evi- 
dence that it has had any very great influence upon 
either their manners, their character, or their civilization. 
They remain substantially the same rude and barbarous 
people they were a hundred years since ; though they 
have acquired from European and Mahometan nations, 
some arts and methods, of which their ancestors, five 
hundred years ago, were ignorant. 



Sec. 1 8. Islands of Fernando Po, St. Helena, and 
Ascension. 

Fernando Po is an island near the coast of Lower 
Guinea, and opposite the mouth of the Cameroon river, 
24 miles long and 16 broad. It was discovered in 1471 
by the Portuguese, and by them ceded to Spain. The 
English took possession of it in 1827, with the consent 



BRITISH AFRICAN POSSESSIONS. 365 

of Spain ; and still hold it, principally as a station from 
which to hold the slave trade in check. Being much 
healthier than any of the coast stations, and having a 
good harbor, it may hereafter have considerable value in 
a commercial point of view. Porter says it had (in 1845) 
only the agent of the West African Company, and two 
other white persons, and a black population estimated at 
from 3,000 to 9,000 persons. 

St. Helena is situated in the South Atlantic Ocean, 
southwesterly from Lower Guinea, and contains 47 square 
miles. It was first colonized by the Dutch, abandoned 
by them in 165 1, and taken possession of by the English 
East India Company. Since 181 5, it has been a Royal 
British colony, and was made famous as the place of con- 
finement or prison of the Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, 
from 181 5 until his death in 182 1. Having a good har- 
bor and a healthy, though hot climate, and being in the 
direct line of navigation between the Cape of Good Hope 
and Europe, it is used as a place of refreshment for ves- 
sels, and is of considerable consequence to British navi- 
gation. 

In the year 1800 the population of St. Helena was said 
not to exceed 2,000, including near 500 soldiers and 600 
slaves. Porter says the population in 1836 consisted of 
2,113 whites, and 2,864 colored persons — total 4,977. 

The population in 1861 was 6,860. 

The Island of Ascension is situated about six hundred 
miles northwesterly from St. Helena. It has a safe har- 
bor, and serves as a depot for ship stores and a watering- 
place for vessels. It is only eight miles long and six 
broad, but is of considerable importance to British navi- 
gation. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

TROPICAL AND SOUTHERN AFRICA, AND ITS ISLANDS, 
AND THE RACES AND PEOPLES OF THE CONTINENT 
OF AFRICA. 

Sec. I. Natural Resources of Tropical Africa y and 
Impediments to Progress. 

The natural resources of the continent of Africa are 
not large, considering its very large area. There are 
some rich river valleys, and large districts along a por- 
tion of its coasts, which have a large supply of rain, and 
an abundant and rank vegetation; but fully one-third 
part of the continent is so arid as to be nearly worthless ; 
and another third, situate within the tropics, having a 
wet and dry season, the heat is so great and long con- 
tinued during the dry season, that the ground becomes 
parched with drought, and vegetation is arrested and 
nearly destroyed. 

If the reader will examine the map, he will observe a 
remarkable deficiency of rivers, both in Africa and Aus- 
tralia, when compared with Europe, Asia, or America. 
There are only three rivers of the first class (the Nile, 
Niger, and Zambeze), on the whole continent of Africa ; 
and those have no such number of tributaries, as the 
great rivers of other quarters of the globe have. There 
are but two or three of the second class of rivers, and 
very few of the third or fourth classes, or of any class, 
considering the extent of Africa. Such facts show the 
general aridity of the interior of the continent, remote 
from the ocean ; and the deficiency of large lakes and 
seas, into which the waters of the interior might flow and 
evaporate, attest the same thing. 

The continent of Africa north of the 20th deg. of south 
latitude, is very broad, being from 1,500 to 4,800 miles 
in width. It has fewer mountains, of any considerable 
height, than any other large portion of the earth. Nearly 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 367 

the whole continent consists of vast plains, of less than 
2,000 feet elevation above the sea ; and as a general 
rule, there is a deficiency of rain upon extensive plains, 
remote from the ocean ; but in cool and cold climates, 
where there is not much evaporation except during four 
or five months in the year, not more than one-third part 
as much rain is necessary to make a country productive, 
as is required within the tropics. 

Some gold is obtained in Guinea and a few other dis- 
tricts, and iron at various places ; but no mines of any 
great extent or importance, have been discovered in any 
part of Africa ; and I presume, either Europe or South 
America is capable of producing food, clothing, and fuel 
for three times as many inhabitants, in proportion to the 
area, as the continent of Africa. 

There are great impediments to much progress in 
tropical Africa, of which the following are the principal : 

1st. The heat of the climate, and its general insalu- 
brity — particularly to Europeans, and persons from tem- 
perate climates. 

2d. The deficiency of navigable rivers, bays, and in- 
terior water courses. 

3d. The deficiency of good harbors, and safe havens 
and anchorages for vessels. 

4th. The great breadth of the continent, and the great 
distance of the most of it from either ocean. 

5th. The aridity of a large portion of the continent, 
and the great extent of deserts. 

6th. The deficiency of mines — of iron as well as coal ; 
and the deficiency of forests and fuel, in more than half, 
and perhaps two-thirds of the continent. 

7th. The inferiority of intellect, and the superstitions 
and vices of the people. 

8th. The prodigious number of languages or dialects. 

The effect of an intensely hot climate upon the phys- 
ical and mental constitution of man, and upon the pro- 
gress of a nation, has been heretofore discussed, in ob- 
stacles number 8 and 9 of Chapter XXIII., and sections 
4, 5, 6, and 7, of Chapter XXV. 

The effect of a deficiency of navigable rivers, bays, and 
interior water courses, and of good harbors, and of the 



368 RACES OF AFRICA. 

remoteness of the greatest part of Africa from the sea, 
has been discussed in Chapter XXIIL, obstacles num- 
ber 5 and 6. 

The 5th and 6th impediments named, have been dis- 
cussed in Chapter XXIIL, obstacles No. 2, 3, and 4. 
The want of coal, and the deficiency of wood and timber 
in the greatest part of the continent will prevent the ex- 
tensive use of railroads and locomotives, and of steam 
navigation also, and confine interior transportation 
mostly to the backs of camels. 

The 7th impediment named, has been discussed in 
Chapter XXIIL, obstacle No. 10, and in Chapter XXV., 
section 17, on the difficulty of educating the Negro races. 

Sec 2. Races of Africa — and their Characteristics. 

McCulloch says, there are seven ascertainable varie- 
ties or races of men in Africa, which he enumerates ; 
to wit, the Llottentot, Kaffer, Abyssinian, Nubian, 
Egyptian, Numidian, and Negro. He gives a brief de- 
scription of each, of which the following is a summary, 
generally in his own words : 

The Hottentots formerly occupied the country now 
comprising the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, and 
the western coast of Africa — north of that colony, as far 
north as the 22d deg. of south latitude. McCulloch 
says they are small and slender ; the average height 
of the men being about four feet six inches, and that of 
the women four feet. The color of the skin, he says, is 
a yelloivish brown ; the cheek bones are high, and much 
spread out in the lateral direction ; and from these the 
face is suddenly contracted below, to a very narrow and 
pointed chin. Nose flat and broad towards the end ; 
color of the eyes a deep chestnut ; they are long, narrow, 
and removed to a great distance from each other. Hair 
thin, growing in tufts, and curled. They have very little 
beard. 

He says, " No portion of this race, unconnected with 
Europeans, has advanced beyond the rudest stage of the 
pastoral state of society. When discovered, they had 
domesticated the ox and the sheep, the flesh and milk 



RACES OF AFRICA. 369 

of which afforded them food, and their skins, with those 
of wild animals, clothing ; they knew nothing of tillage, 
had no fixed dwellings, and practised no mechanical art, 
except that of fabricating the bow and arrow? 

The country occupied by the Hottentots is not in the 
torrid zone ; but south of it. The climate is warm and 
dry. the most of the year, but not excessively hot, except 
during about three months in summer ; and hence the 
complexions of the people are a yellowish brown, and not 
black, like the Negro of inter-tropical countries. It is 
mostly an elevated and dry country, generally better 
fitted for grazing than tillage. Being a healthy country, 
the small stature and slender forms of the people, must 
have been caused by their insufficient diet for many 
generations, and during many centuries in succession. 

The Kaffers or Caffres, occupied the south-east 
coast of Africa, from the 2 2d to the 3 2d degree of south 
latitude — including the Zoolu country, the present colony 
of Natal, Caffraria south of it, and the most of the coun- 
try of the present Dutch Republics, known as the Orange 
River Republic and the Transvaal Republic. 

McCulloch says, u The color of the Kaffer is neither 
black, like that of the Negro, nor of the color of a faded 
leaf, like that of the Hottentot, but of a deep brown. 
Hair short, curly, and woolly ; but it is not of the woolli- 
ness of the Negro. Nose tolerably elevated ; lips large 
and thick ; but the lower maxillary bone does not pro- 
ject in the remarkable manner of the Negro, and conse- 
quently the facial angle is much greater. The body, 
instead of being, as in the Hottentot, diminutive and 
feeble, is muscular and athletic, and the stature is equal 
to that of the European race. * * * In the useful 
arts, they have made considerable progress. Besides do- 
mesticating the ox and sheep, they have also tamed the 
horse and goat ; and their agriculture extends to the 
cultivation of barley and millet. It is a singular and 
distinctive trait, that they practise universally, the rite of 
circumcision ; but of the origin of the practice they can 
give no account." 

The practice of circumcision indicates, that their an- 
cestors, or some of them, were Israelites, who migrated 

16* 



370 RACES OF AFRICA. 

to that country, either by land or water, at some remote 
period of history ; and their great superiority in the arts, 
in intellect, and in energy of character, to the Hottentots 
and to the Negro races, all indicate that they are de- 
scendants of a people considerably advanced in the arts 
and in civilization, who must have emigrated from Asia, or 
Northern Africa. 

In their color and features, forms and constitutions, 
the Hottentots and Kaffers occupy a medium place be- 
tween the European and the Negro races ; but in intel- 
lect, the Hottentot is not in the least above the lowest 
tribes of Negroes. 

The Abyssinians, he says, are " nearly black ; but the 
hair is long and generally lank, like that of an Arab or 
Hindoo ; features regular, often the European model, 
and the nose often aquiline. The stature equals that of 
the European ; and the whole person is generally well 
formed, and occasionally handsome. The nations of this 
race have made considerable progress in the useful arts. 
They have domesticated the most of the useful animals, 
as the ox, sheep, horse, ass, and camel ; and aritivate 
most of the common corns, as wheat, barley, and millet. 
They also work with some skill, articles of iron, copper, 
and brass ; and except the ancient Egyptians, and prob- 
ably the Numidians, are the only native race of the en- 
tire continent, who have invented an alphabet, or possessed 
a literature." 

The origin of the Abyssinians, and of their written 
language, learning and laws, religion and arts, are ex- 
amined and discussed in section five. 

Of the Nubian race, McCulloch says, "A long 
oval countenance ; a curved nose, somewhat rounded 
towards the top ; rather thick lips, but not protruding 
excessively, like those of the Negro ; a retreating chin ; 
scanty beard ; lively dark eyes ; strongly frizzled, but 
never woolly hair ; a finely formed person of the middle 
size, with a bronze complexion — are the physical charac- 
teristics of this race. Some of the nations of this race 
have made considerable progress in the common arts of 
life, but they have no indigenous literature." He includes 
in the Nubian race, not only the Nubians, but also the 



RACES OF AFRICA. 37 1 

people of Sennar, the Somaulis, the Gallas tribes, and 
with the exception of the Abyssinians, all the people of 
Eastern Africa, from the 8th degree of north latitude, to 
the southern confines of Egypt 

The Egyptian race, (he says) is represented by the 
Copts of Egypt. " They have long hair, a yellowish 
dusky complexion, neither Grecian nor Arabian, a puffed 
visage, swollen eyes, flat noses, and thick lips ; and in 
short, according to Volney, much resemble mulattoes, or 
the mixed offspring of the European and Negro." " This 
(he says) was one of the earliest civilized races of man- 
kind ; and at least thirty ages (or centuries) ago, it had 
already tamed the useful animals, cultivated the most 
valuable plants, smelted the useful and precious metals, 
and erected architectural monuments which, for their 
durability, extent, and grandeur, still astonish the world. 
They were also among the first to invent hieroglyphics 
a?id alphabetic writing? 

The Numidian is the next race. The people occu- 
pying the northern portion of Africa west of Egypt, and 
north of the tropic of Cancer, known by the various 
names of Moors, Berbers, Tuareks, and Tibbans, with 
an admixture, in some instances, of Arab blood, are prob- 
ably the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, before 
the settlement of the Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, or 
Arabs ; that is, they are the descendants of the Lybians, 
Numidians, and Mauritanians. With this race, the hair 
is long and black ; the color of the skin a light brown, 
little deeper than that of the inhabitants of Spain ; the 
features are European, but the nose is not generally very 
prominent. Although superior at all times in civiliza- 
tion to any negi'o nation, this race appears at no period 
to have made any remarkable progress in arts or arms ; 
and scarcely any in letters ; for it has been ascertained, 
only of late years, that they once possessed the art of 
alphabetic writing. Their language, indeed, is but the 
jargon of a rude people, destitute of terms to express the 
most common abstract ideas distinctly. Their inferiority 
is most decidedly implied, in the facility with which they 
have submitted to every successive race of conquerors, 
during a period of at least 2,500 years." 



372 RACES OF AFRICA. 

The Negro race occupies all the remaining portions 
of inter-tropical Africa, and also the great island of 
Madagascar. The following are their leading charac- 
teristics : " Skin and eyes black ; hair black and woolly ; 
skull compressed laterally, and elongated toward the 
front ; forehead loiv, narrow, and slanting ; cheek bones 
prominent ; jaws narrow and projecting ; chin receding ; 
eyes prominent ; nose broad, thick, and flat ; lips very 
thick ; palms of the hands and soles of the feet flat ; 
knees turned in, and toes turned out. The stature and 
physical strength are equal to that of the European. 
. . . Many of the Negro nations have made con- 
siderable progress in the necessary and useful arts. 
They cultivate many useful grains, roots, and 
fruits ; have appropriated the services of the most use- 
ful of the domestic animals — such as the ox, horse, ass, 
camel, goat, sheep, and hog, all of which appear to be 
indigenous. It is singular, however, that no Negro 
nation, nor even any native African nation, has ever had 
the ingenuity to tame and train the elephant, a service 
to civilization which has been performed by almost every 
Asiatic nation to whose country this animal is indigen- 
ous, and which was done by the Carthaginian and Roman 
settlers in Africa." 

" It is a still more striking fact, that no Negro, and in 
fact no African nation, save the Egyptians, Abyssinians, 
and partially the Numidians, ever possessed a literature, 
or had ingenuity to invent an alphabet, however ruder 

"The general character thus sketched belongs (he 
says) with more or less intensity, to the whole Negro 
race within the limits assigned to it ; but it is not, at the 
same time, to be forgotten, that there is much variety — 
greater perhaps than exists among the European, or any 
other family." 

Mr. McCuiloch agrees with all intelligent writers who 
have described the Negro, in saying that his skull is 
compressed laterally, and that his forehead is low, 
narrow, and slanting ; that is, the cerebrum (the 
frontal and upper part of the brain, which is the seat of 
the reasoning powers), is small, not generally more than 
half as large as it usually is in educated Europeans ; 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 373 

while the posterior parts of the brain (the seat of the 
nerves of sensation and volition) are fully as large as they 
are in Europeans. It is this peculiarity of the Negro 
brain, which renders their appetites and their physical 
passions and impulses strong, and their reasoning powers 
defective and weak ; which subjects the action of the 
latter to the dominion of the former, and renders the 
character fickle, changeable, and unstable, and unfitted 
for any high, or long-continued mental effort. Malte- 
Brun says, indolent levity, and childish carelessness seem 
imiate qualities of the Negro race. 

The variety in the Negro features, of which Mr. 
McCulloch speaks, arises from two causes : first, the 
mixture of the Negro with emigrants from Northern 
Africa, Arabia, and other parts of Asia ; and secondly, the 
difference in altitude of the countries they inhabit ; and 
their difference in character and acquirements has arisen 
from their greater or less intercourse with the people of 
Northern Africa, Europe, and Asia, and the influence 
which such intercourse has had upon them. 

Sec. 3. Elements of Discord and Anarchy, and of 
Corruption also, in Tropical Africa. 

A common origin, a common language reduced to rule 
and made definite and certain, by becoming a written 
language, a national organization in accordance with 
written laws, and lastly, a code of written laws, consti- 
tute the four strongest bonds of union which exist among 
the people of a nation. Of these four, a written language 
is the most important ; for it is the first germ of civiliza- 
tion — without which it is impossible for the people of 
a large country to have even a common language very 
long ; and utterly impossible to have a code of laws of 
any kind. A few rude customs and usages will exist ; 
but it is impossible to have a national organization for a 
people occupying a considerable extent of territory, or a 
code of laws, without a written language, books, and 
schools. (See Genesis, chap. xi. i to 9, and ante, p. 
17 — 121 to 124 — 216 — and 281 to 282.) 

The dispersion of the people at the Tower of Babel 
(as recorded in Genesis), was a necessary consequence 



374 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

of their language being confounded. Diversity of lan- 
guage is a bar to social and business intercourse, to com- 
munity of thought and feeling, to concert of action, and 
to national harmony. It often excites distrust, jealousy, 
and fear ; and is the strongest element of discord which 
can exist in a country. 

When the Saxon savages overran England in the 5th 
and 6th centuries, and established themselves in the 
country, though they had a common origin, and a com- 
mon dialect, yet, having no written laws, nor organic 
laws of any kind, they had no national organization, a7id 
no bond of union, except a common interest to conquer 
the Britons in order to possess their country ; and when 
that object was attained, each chieftain and his followers 
settled down in the portion of the country he had con- 
quered, and formed a small kingdom. England was thus 
divided into seven petty kingdoms called the Heptarchy ; 
which continued to form separate kingdoms, almost con- 
stantly at war with each other, during a period of more 
than 200 years, and until they were finally united as one 
nation, under one king, and one government, in the year 
S27. 

Their wars were induced by ambition and rivalship, 
self-interest and jealousy ; and marked by conspiracies 
and confederacies, treacheries and cruelties, murders and 
devastations, very similar to those commonly practiced 
by the Negro tribes and petty chiefs and monarchs of 
Tropical Africa ; by the Indian tribes of the United 
States ; and by savage and barbarous tribes in every 
country. Savages are unfeeling and cruel creatures 
everywhere, and generally destitu-te of moral sympathy, 
as well as of coiiscience and moral sense ; but it may be 
said to the credit of the Negro races, that they are very 
generally less revengeful and cruel, than savages of cold 
climates. It was not until long after our Saxon ances- 
tors had been converted to Christianity, and the clergy 
had adapted the Roman alphabet to their meagre dialect, 
and formed for them a written language, so that they 
could have a code of written laws and a common ad- 
ministration of justice, that they were united under one 
government, and became a nation. 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 375 

A written language, books, and schools, constitute the 
dissolving elements which are anglicizing the descendants 
of millions of emigrants to the United States, amalga- 
mating the Irish and the Welsh, the Germans and the 
Dutch, the French and the Swiss, the Danes and the 
Swedes, and the Chinese, also, with the Anglo-Ameri- 
cans, and making them all one people, and one nation. 

At the present time the Arabic and the Amharic of 
Abyssinia, the English and the French, the Portuguese 
and the Dutch, are the only written languages in use, in 
Tropical Africa ; and the use of each of them is very 
limited. 

McCulloch says, " The number of different nations, and 
even of distinct languages, is proportioned to the barbarism 
of the people ; and there is no quarter of the globe, 
America excepted, in which the number of both is so 
great. In our inquiry we have been able to detect at 
least 200 languages, and indeed the Empire of Bornou 
alone, is said to have no less than thirty." 

Again he says, "The European who has observed the 
affinities among the languages spoken in his own divi- 
sion of the world, is ill prepared for the Babel of tongues 
that prevail south of the Sahara. In 60 miles of the 
Gold Coast, no less than seven or eight languages are 
found, each unintelligible to the tribes speaking the others, 
and bearing no relation whatever to the others. (Bosman.) 
Bowditch (Appendix, 503) gives the numerals of 31 
tribes, whence it appears, that though some few may 
be considered as variations from the same root, the 
majority do not assimilate in the slightest degree. 
The Ashantees, Fantees, Wossaus, Akimese, Assin- 
ese, and Agnapims speak dialects of the same lan- 
guage ; but for the rest of the tribes that make up 
this barbarian kingdom (Ashantee) an imaginary line 
often separates two, who possess no means of social inter- 
course. This formidable obstacle to all communication is, 
no doubt, a chief cause of the continued degradation of the 
Negro race, more especially as none of their langtmges 
possess symbolical characters. In Ashantee, as in other 
parts of Africa, the only persons who can read or write are 
the Moslems, and the only written language the- Arabic 



376 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

(Isert, 1 80 to 182 ; Bowditch, 344 to 360 ; Hutton, 368 to 
384; Adams, 195)." 

Malte-Brun says, "Descending the Senegal, one might 
name kingdoms and principalities almost without num- 
ber." ..." To the south of the Gambia, there are 
twe7ity small states, which dispute zuitJi one another tJieir 
obscure existence. The most conspicuous nation is that 
of the Feloops, whose territories are greatly scattered, 
and extend from the Gambia to the river St. Dominique, 
and a little beyond it. Savage and revengeful, but faithful 
to their friends, they scarcely acknozvledge any government ; 
and the paltry fetich is the only object of their worship!' 

Again he says, " On the upper parts of the Rio 
Grande, live the Nation of Soosoos, erroneously called 
the Foulahs of Guinea. Timboo, the capital of their 
country, contains 7,000 inhabitants. They have iron 
mines, worked by women ; also some manufactures in 
silver, copper, and wood. It is said that these people 
can bring into the field 16,000 cavalry or upwards. 
They are MaJiometans, but surrounded by twenty-four 
pagan nations or tribes, 011 whom they are always ready to 
make war, in order to procure slaves!' 

Such facts, with his description of the Soosoos and 
the surrounding tribes, present a fair view of the politi- 
cal condition of nearly all tropical Africa. Here is shown 
a little nation, of perhaps 100,000 souls, held together 
by the Mahometan religion, the Koran, the Arabic lan- 
guage, and the laws and precepts contained in the Ko- 
ran ; possessed of an organized government, and sur- 
rounded by a large number of petty tribes of, perhaps, 
1,000 to 3,000 persons each, without a written language, 
organization, law, or religion — and on whom they make 
war at pleasure, for the purpose of seizing their men, and 
carrying them off as slaves. The petty tribes of igno- 
rant, stupid, and helpless pagans are the constant prey 
of their more intelligent and powerful neighbors. Very 
likely those tribes have several different languages. 

Such is the disorganized and distracted condition of 
the greatest part of tropical Africa, for want of written 
languages, books, and literature ; and for want of orga?iiza- 
tion, codes of civil and criminal law, and a system of 



TROPICAL AFRICA. . 377 

jurisprudence ; none of which can exist without a written 
language. If the Negroes had had as much natural 
intellect as the Phoenicians and Egyptians, Assyrians 
and Israelites, Persians and Hindoos, Greeks and Ro- 
mans, or the Chinese, they would have invented or bor- 
rowed an alphabet from other nations ; and would have 
had a written language, with many elements of civiliza- 
tion and progress accompanying it, more than 2,000 
years ago. The fact of their not having these elements 
of civilization, is, of itself conclusive evidence of their 
inferiority of intellect. 

Slavery and the Slave Trade also constitute cause 
of war, and elements of discord. 

Slavery exists, and slaves are numerous, in all the Ne- 
gro kingdoms and countries. The kings and chiefs, and 
the men of wealth also, very generally have slaves ; and 
many of them have great numbers of slaves, both male 
and female ; and there has been for centuries, and per- 
haps for more than two thousand years, an active slave 
trade carried on between the Negro countries south and 
south-east from the Desert of Sahara, and Egypt ; and, 
for many centuries, with Turkey and the Barbary States. 
Several thousand Negro slaves have been, and still are, 
sent annually from tropical Africa to Northern Africa 
and Asia. 

The slave trade did not commence with the introduc- 
tion of African slaves into the West India Islands ; but 
existed more than two thousand years before that time ; 
though the introduction of Negro slaves into those 
islands, and into the Spanish, Portuguese, and British 
colonies upon the continent of America, increased more 
than tenfold the demand for slaves, and thereby stimu- 
lated and increased the extent of the slave trade, and 
rendered it more virulent and cruel. 

As to Government and Slavery, McCulloch says, 
" Most forms of government may be found in Africa. 
Despotism, however, in its worst and most offensive 
shape, is by far the most prevalent. In some states, 
there exists a sort of feudal aristocracy • and in others, 
an aristocracy depending on the rude distinctions of supe- 



37$ TROPICAL AFRICA. 

rior strength, and prowess in war, which participates, to 
a greater or less extent, in the 1 ights of sovereignty ; and 
in some they (the rights of sovereignty) are occasionally 
shared by the people. Some large states consist of a 
confederacy of petty chiefs, who, however, are very fre- 
quently at war with each other. In fact, with but few 
exceptions, slavery and anarchy reign triumphant 
throughout Africa" 

Speaking of the market of Kano, in Central Africa, 
Murray says, " The slaves, who constitute the staple 
commodity, have a special market, composed of two long 
ranges of sheds, one for males, and the other for females. 
The poor creatures, decked out for the purpose, are seated 
in rows, and are nicely scrutinized by the purchasers, who 
inspect the teeth, eyes, and limbs, causing them to cough, 
and move in different directions, so that any defect in 
their persons may become apparent." 

Speaking of Timbuctoo, Murray says, " Gold, and still 
more, slaves, are the staple articles in the market for sale 
and exchange with other countries. 1 ' In reference to the 
west coast of Africa, he says, " The slave trade, unfor- 
tunately, has ever been the grand staple of the intercourse 
with Europe. Sometimes the chiefs may make their cap- 
tives, taken in war, subservient to this nefarious traffic ; 
but in general, the victims are the product of expeditions 
undertaken for that express purpose. The king, who 
wishes to replenish his treasury' by the sale of slaves, 
fixes tipon some village, either in his own or a neighboring 
territory, surrounds it in the night, and sets fire to it ; and 
the wretched inhabitants, in attempting to escape, are seized 
and hurried on board a European vessel. Slavery is made 
also a punishment for offences." Malte-Brun says, moth- 
ers are seen selling their 'children at an early age, for a few 
bushels of rice. 

Such examples furnish the best possible evidence of 
tJie grade of moral sense of the uncultivated African Negro. 

Malte-Brun says, " Yet despotism is not the only, nor 
the chief misfortune of Africa. The states of Benin and 
Dahomey, the Yolofs and the Foulahs, enjoy at least inter- 
nal tranquillity , under their absolute monarchs ; while in 
Bambook, around Sierra Leone, and on the Gold Coast, 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 379 

the principal village chiefs form, in conjunction with an 
elective monarchy, turbulent and disastrous aristocracies. 
As the authority of each increases in proportion to the 
quantity of gold and the number of slaves which he pos- 
sesses, the people of distinction eagerly exert themselves 
to become rich, by laying waste the villages of their rivals. 
Hence those perpetual petty wars, which desolate almost 
all the Negro countries, and which have for their leading 
object the capture of unfortunate beings, who are sold to 
Europeans," as slaves. 

Polygamy is also a source and element of corruption, 
dissension, and discord. It enables the kings and chiefs, 
and the men of wealth, to obtain and possess all the 
finest-looking and most desirable women in the country ; 
and renders it difficult and often impossible for many of 
the ordinary class of men to obtain such companions as 
they desire, and might otherwise get. 

Murray says, " Polygamy, throughout all tropical Af- 
rica, has no limit but that of the ability to maintain a 
considerable number of wives. By the great it is practised 
to the utmost extent that their circumstances will admit. 
To have numerous wives and children, is considered a 
matter of state, and is always made their first boast. It 
forms even a source of wealth ; for, except the principal 
wife, who is mistress of the household, and the sacred 
wife, who is consecrated to the fetich, all are made to 
work hard, both in tilling the fields, and in manufactur- 
ing mats and cloths. ... In the towns on the coast 
the more wealthy take usually from three to twenty wives, 
while the kings raise the number to eighty or ait hundred ; 
but in Ashantee, Dahomey, and other despotic interior 
kingdoms, the privilege knows no bounds, and the number 
is often carried to several tJwusands. It is swelled not 
only by captives taken in war, but by the selection which 
the king has a right to make of tlie fairest and most ac- 
complished females within the circuit of his own domin- 
ions. A great part of the nation are thus reduced to 
celibacy, and very dissolute habits prevail." 

Such are the social, civil, and political inequalities 
among the Negro nations of tropical Africa ; and such 
the measure of equality, (or rather of inequality) which 



380 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

they mete out to each other. Negroes of superior in- 
tellect and talent, energy of character and providence 
for the future, rule there — as men of that order do among 
every people — not moonstruck with political fanaticisms 
about manhood suffrage, and political and social, as well 
as civil equality among all races of men. 

Speaking of the Darfoor Negroes, Malte-Brun says, 
" Polygamy is carried to great extravagance, and the inter- 
course of the sexes subject to little regulation." Speak- 
ing of the Negroes of Senegambia and Guinea, he says, 
" Polygamy is carried to a greater excess among them, than 
in any other part of the world." Again he says, " The 
most unrestrained polygamy exists in Congo, and the 
whole influence of the Christian religion has been con- 
fined to the discouragement of incestuous marriages. 
The holy state of marriage, the mutual affection of man 
and wife, and the enjoyments of domestic happiness, are 
foreign to the ideas of a Congo. Surrounded by a nu- 
merous progeny, he feels no attachment to his children. 
Drunkenness, noisy music, indecent dances, and sleep 
are his enjoyments. Useful works are performed by fe- 
males, and numberless slaves." 

Polygamy is carried to a very limited extent among 
the Mahometan nations of Southwestern Asia, and 
Northern Africa, compared with the Negro Nations of 
tropical Africa. In the former the wives of men of 
distinction or wealth are generally treated with tender- 
ness and delicacy, as companions — while by the Negro 
chiefs they are kept as laboring slaves, and treated more 
like beasts of burden, than like companions. 

Sec. 4. Migrations in Africa — Intercourse and Mixture 
of the Negro Races ; and their Influence tipon the Negro 
Tribes and Nations. 

History is not very full nor clear, in relation to the 
emigrations which are supposed to have taken place from 
Arabia and Northern Africa to tropical Africa ; nor of 
the origin of the peoples and tribes now occupying trop- 
ical, and Southern Africa ; but there are some scraps of 
history, and much tradition upon the subject — confirmed 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 38 1 

by peculiarities and analogies of language and features, 
religion and customs. Evidences of such a character are 
so numerous, as to leave no room for doubt that Arabs 
and Moors, Berbers and other Mahometan emigrants 
have, from time to time, for more than a thousand years 
past, settled in Western and Central Africa, north of 
the Kong Mountains and the Mountains of the Moon ; 
and also along the whole eastern coast, from the Red Sea, 
to the 20th degree of south latitude ; and that they carried 
with them their arts and religion, laws and customs, 
and intermarried and mixed more or less with the Negroes. 

Speaking of Central Africa, south of the Great Desert, 
Murray says, " The Arabs appear to have migrated thither 
in numerous, and probably successive colonies. The move- 
ment took place chiefly in consequence of the contest 
between the dynasties of the Abbassides and Ommiades, 
when the vanquished party sought refuge in the re- 
motest extremities of Africa. Being probably possessed 
of superior skill in the military art, they easily prevailed 
over the imdisciplined natives, and established powerful 
states along a river which they called the Nile of the 
Negroes." Again he says, " Houssa is an extensive ter- 
ritory in the most central part of Africa, reaching from 
the upper course of the Yeou nearly west to the Niger. 
. . . This region derives its social character from 
the Fellatahs, descended apparently from the Arabs, who 
migrated thither in large bodies in the 10th and nth 
centuries, and have ever since continued to be the ruling 
people!' Again he says, " The Fellatahs, who form the 
ruling people in the fine territory of Houssa, appear to 
have migrated from Egypt and, Barbary, bringing with 
them the Mahometan religion." 

The Fellatahs are often called Foulahs. Malte-Brun 
says, they " have a reddish black or a yellowish brown 
complexion, longer and less woolly hair than the Negroes, 
noses less flat, and lips not so thick. These features 
seem to indicate a mixture of the Berber and Negro race? 

Murray says, " Leo Africanus, visiting Timbuctoo in the 
14th century, found it in the possession of Ischia, a 
powerful chief from Morocco, who then held sway over 
the principal countries of Central Africa." 



382 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

Brace, in his work On the Races of the Old World, says, 
(p. 230) " The ruling tribe of the important kingdom of 
Bomoii, lying between Lake Tchad on the east, and 
Lake Yeou on the west, is Berber, and many Berber 
tribes have formerly mingled with the people." The 
Berbers are Mahometans, and supposed to be descendants 
of the original inhabitants of the Barbary States. The 
ancestors of the Somauli tribes, he says, are from Arabia. 

Again (p. 238) Brace says, " A Semitic immigration 
subsequent to that which laid the foundation of all the 
African tribes thus far described, was the Arabian. This 
poured itself over all Northern and Central Africa, 
founding powerful states, and carrying a degree of civil- 
ization and literature, and a higher religious belief, among 
the pagan tribes of Negro-land." Again (p. 241) he says, 
"Arabian colonies and influence have likewise extended 
over Kordofan, Darfur, Waday, and Bornou ; and even 
as far south as Zanzibar, a royal dynasty of pure Ara- 
bian blood, sits on the throne. Madagascar itself, shows 
traces of this Semitic race." 

Ludamar is a Moorish kingdom, situate on the south 
side of the Desert of Sahara, between Timbuctoo and 
the Atlantic Ocean, and between the 15 th and 17th 
degrees of north latitude. The greatest part of the in- 
habitants are said to be Negroes, who have been sub- 
jected to the dominion of the Moors. 

Of the Kaffir races, Brace says, "Emigration in masses, 
invasion and conquest, are proceeding all the while. Em- 
pires are being erected, and nations subjugated or ab- 
sorbed continually." 

It is stated in the London Cyclopaedia of Geography, 
that when the Portuguese commenced the settlement of 
Mozambique, they found the Arabs in quiet possession 
of the coast. As to Bambarra, which is bounded north 
by the Desert of Sahara, and west by the Kong Moun- 
tains, it is said the aborigines have not advanced 
much in civilization. They compose the peasantry of 
the country. The Mandingoes and Foulahs compose 
the most of the population of the towns, and are the 
merchants and mechanics. Having embraced Islamism, 
they are more advanced in civilization than the Bam bar- 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 383 

raf. The Moors also have established themselves in the 
towns, where they are occupied with trade. Having in- 
troduced Islamism, they have obtained great influence 
with the petty sovereigns of the country. Bambarra is 
governed by a number of petty independent chief s , who often go 
to war with each other. The towns inhabited by the Fou- 
lahs, Mandingoes, and Moors, seem to be independent of the 
chiefs or sovereigns, in whose countries they are situated. 

Again it is said, that in the hilly region of Central 
Soudan, the Negroes constitute the bulk of the popula- 
tion, but are governed by the Fellatahs ; and in the 
eastern plains of Soudan, they are intermixed with the 
Arabian tribes, which have the ascendancy. 

The Egyptian merchants and the Moors of the Bar- 
bary States, have carried on commerce with the Negro 
nations of Central and Western Africa, by means of 
camels and caravans crossing the Desert of Sahara, for 
hundreds of years ; and probably for more than a thou- 
sand years. Merchants in Ludamar and Timbuctoo, 
Houssa and Kano, Sockatoo and Darfoor, and many 
other interior African cities, have long been engaged in 
that trade, and by that means the people of those interior 
Negro countries have been supplied, not only with cloths 
and trinkets, but also with iron and hardware, cutlery 
and firearms, mechanical and agricultural tools, and im- 
plements of industry. 

Malte-Brun says, a caravan leaves the city of Fez in 
Morocco every year for Timbuctoo — travelling about 
3|- miles per hour and 7 hours per day, arrives in ten 
days at Waddi-Noon, Akka, or Tatta, where they stop a 
month for the arrival of other caravans, which are to join 
them ; sixteen days more are then occupied in travelling 
from Akka to Tarassa, when they rest fifteen days. 
They then proceed to Arooan, another station at a distance 
of seven days' journey, where they rest fifteen days. 
They then set out for Timbuctoo, where they arrive on 
the sixth day." Another caravan leaves Waddi-Noon, 
crosses the desert west of the Black Mountains, goes to 
the Western Tarassa, where it stops to procure salt, and 
arrives at Timbuctoo after a journey of five or six months. 
Another caravan crosses the desert from Cairo to Darfoor. 



384 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

He says, "In 1805 a caravan, consisting of 2,000 per- 
sons, and 1,800 camels, not finding water at the usual 
resting places, died of thirst, both men and animals." 
From such facts, the reader can judge of the magnitude 
and importance of a caravan, and of the quantity of goods 
and merchandise thereby transported. 

The Portuguese have had forts and trading posts, and 
colonies also, at numerous places on the coast of Guinea 
and on the eastern coast of Africa, for more than three 
centuries ; France has had similar establishments and 
settlements on the Senegal River and on the coast of 
Guinea, for more than two centuries ; the English have 
long had forts, trading posts and colonies on the river 
Gambia, at Sierra Leone, and at different places on the 
Gold Coast, and at Capetown and Natal, which were 
referred to in the last chapter ; and the Dutch and 
Spanish have had several establishments and settlements 
upon the coast of Africa, of a similar character. 

Christian missions, and schools to educate native schol- 
ars, have been very generally established at such trading 
posts ; and those places have been centres of intelligence 
and commerce, for a large country around each of them ; 
where the natives have come in contact with Europeans, 
obtained goods and various tools and implements of 
industry, acquired more or less information, and had the 
means of learning many of the arts of civilized life. All 
such things must have had great influence upon the 
natives, and a very favorable influence, since the aboli- 
tion of the slave trade. The natives have imitative talent, 
if they have no inventive talent ; and such intercourse 
with Europeans must increase their stock of intelligence, 
improve them in the useful arts, and elevate them, more 
or less, in the scale of civilization. 

The former colony, now Republic of Liberia, has been 
doing a great and good work, upon the west coast of 
Africa, for nearly half a century past, which will be here- 
after stated more at length ; but the Imam or Sultan 
of Muscat and his people, have exercised the greatest 
maritime, commercial, and naval power upon the east 
coast of Africa, for more than fifty years past. 

The city of Muscat is situated near the east angle of 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 385 

Arabia — has a good harbor, and about 60,000 inhab- 
itants — consisting of various races, including Arabs and 
Persians, Hindoos and Afghans, Syrians and Keords, 
and also Negroes. In Asia, the Imam of Muscat has 
control over the whole south-east coast, and nearly all 
the east coast of Arabia ; and in Africa, nearly the whole 
east coast, from the Red Sea to the 10th degree of south 
latitude, has long been tributary to him and his descend- 
ants ; and the islands of Zanzibar, Socotra, and others 
on the coast of Africa, formed part of his dominions. In 
1840, he removed his court from Muscat to Zanzibar, 
where he remained until his death in 1856, when his do- 
minions were divided between two of his sons. His 
people and power, and their commercial and maritime 
operations, have exerted a very great influence upon 
the Negroes of Eastern Africa. 



Sec. 5. Religion and Morals of the Negro Nations. 

McCulloch says, " Prior to the fourth century, Abys- 
sinia was converted to Christianity, which it has ever 
since nominally professed. After the rise of Islamism, 
and the conquest of Egypt by the Moslems, many of the 
Egyptians fled the country, and Nubia and Abyssinia 
were filled with Christian and Jewish refugees, where 
they settled, and, unmolested by the Moslems, continued 
to enjoy their religious privileges. 

" The Abyssinians (he says) profess Christianity, but 
it has little influence over their conduct. At present 
they are split into three parties, violently opposed to each 
other. They retain a great number of Judaical observ- 
ances, abstaining from the meats prohibited by the Mosaic 
law, practising circumcision, keeping both the Saturday 
and Sunday as Sabbaths, and regarding fasts as essential. 
. . . Their saints are extremely numerous, and surpass 
in miraculous power even those of the Romish calendar. 
. . . The clergy do not attempt to prohibit divorce, or 
even polygamy, the propensity to which in the nation is 
probably too powerful to render any prohibition effectual? 

" Marriage in Abyssinia " (he says) " is a very slight 
connection, formed and dissolved at pleasure. . . . The will 

17 



2,86 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

of either party, or of both, is sufficient to dissolve the 
connection. If they have several children, they divide 
them ; if they have but one, and he is under seven years 
of age, he belongs to the mother ; if above seven, to the 
father. . . . Bruce mentions being in company at Gon- 
dar, where there was a lady present with six persons, 
each of whom had been successively her husband, 
although none of them stood in that relation to her at 
the time. Nor do either party consider themselves 
bound to observe with rigid fidelity this slight engage- 
ment, even while it lasts. Manners may be considered, 
in this respect, as in a state of almost total dissolution." 

Such is the uncontrollable violence of the sexual pas- 
sions, and the dissolute state of morals in a Christian 
country, having the best and most desirable climate of 
any country in tropical Africa. 

" Feticism in its most degrading and offensive form " 
(says McCulloch), " is the religion of the greater number 
of the inhabitants of Africa — being professed by almost 
all the Negroes, and by nearly all the natives of Mada- 
gascar. They appear generally to admit a good and an 
evil principle, have their lucky and unlucky days ; and 
their priests claim the power of preserving men and 
animals from the influence of evil spirits." Different 
tribes worship different animals and inanimate objects. 
Some worship serpents as gods ; others alligators ; some 
worship hyenas, or leopards, and some the moon, etc. ; 
and some of them are said to offer human sacrifices, on 
special occasions, to appease their gods. 

Mahometanism has been introduced, and now prevails 
among all the Negro nations bordering on the south side 
of the Desert of Sahara, from the Atlantic Ocean to the 
borders of Abyssinia ; and also along the coast of the 
Indian Ocean, from the mouth of the Red Sea to the 
tenth degree of south latitude, and as far as the influence 
of the descendants of the late Imam of Muscat extends. 

Not less than eight or ten Mahometan Negro king- 
doms and states have been established in Central Africa ; 
which exercise jurisdiction over a much larger number 
of inhabitants, and are much better organized, than any 
of the other Negro governments. The Foolahs or Fel- 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 387 

latahs, the Mandingoes, and the Jalofs, or Yalofs, are the 
three most numerous, and the most improved and civil- 
ized Negro peoples in Western- Africa. They have gen- 
erally embraced the Mahometan faith, and each of them 
is divided into several states — occupying the greatest 
part of Senegambia. The greatest part of the Foulahs 
are herdsmen, and live principally by raising and selling 
cattle, though they give some attention to agriculture. 
They are widely diffused among the Negro nations of 
Senegambia, the valley of the river Niger and its tribu- 
taries, and the western part of the great basin of Lake 
Tchad. 

" The social condition of the people of Africa (says 
McCulloch) is as depressed as their industry and their 
science. But what else could be looked for where Feti- 
cism, idolatry, and the most revolting superstitions are so 
prevalent f Polygamy may be said to be diffused all over 
Africa ; and though forbidden in Abyssinia, the marriage 
tie is so slight as hardly to have any sensible influence, and 
morals are, in this respect, in a state of almost total dis- 
solution. That cannibalism formerly existed to a fright- 
ful extent, in many parts of Africa, cannot be doubted ; 
and though it has greatly declined, partly because of the 
introduction of Mahometanism, and partly and princi- 
pally, perhaps, because of the markets opened in the 
West Indies and America for the slaves or captives taken 
in war, there seems to be no dotcbt that it still exists among 
certain tribes. Among some considerable nations, the 
exposure of children, and the slaughter of those that are 
deformed or maimed, is not tolerated merely, but enforced. 
And it is said to be usual among the greater number of 
the nations upon the coast of Guinea, for rich individuals 
to immolate human victims, once in their lives, to the 
manes of their fathers (Balbi. Abrige, 849, 2d ed). Atro- 
cities like these are, however, confined to the least im- 
proved tribes of the Negro race. But speaking gener- 
ally, barbarism, cruelty, and the most degrading supersti- 
tions, are universally prevalent among by far the greater 
number of the nations of African origin." 

Even Mahometanism, so pernicious in its influences 
in temperate climates, and when compared with Chris- 



388 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

tianity, with the precepts and social system of Confu- 
cius, or with the best forms of paganism, is so much 
superior to feticism and the degrading superstitions 
connected therewith — that it tends to raise in the scale 
of intelligence and morals, in the useful arts and in 
industry, those Negro nations and tribes that adopt it. 
The indulgences of the Koran seem better adapted to 
hot, than to temperate climates. They are moderate when 
compared with the ungovernable appetites and passions 
of pagans in tropical countries. 

"As the preachers of Islamism" (says Brace), "the Fel- 
latahs have undoubtedly advanced the progress of civil- 
zation among the pagan tribes of Africa ; for Mahomet- 
anism, to a certain degree, restrains brutal passions, 
does away with human sacrifices, cultivates learning, 
and substitutes the sense of personal dignity, and the 
belief in an immovable and beneficent Providence, with 
the feeling of a membership in a vast community of be- 
lievers, for the low habits, the superstitious beliefs, and 
the isolated selfishness of pagan tribes. It has aided, 
too, to a certain extent, in checking slavery and the 
slave trade ; for the civil code of the Koran forbids the 
enslaving of a man born of free parents^ and professing 
the Mahometan faith ; and in no case, can a Mahometan 
be reduced to slavery. The Fellatahs have made use of 
this proclamation of liberty to the slave, in their wars 
with other African states, with great effect. The Feha- 
tah Empire, though holding loosely together, is still very 
formidable, and must be the great instrument to the Eu- 
ropeans for improving Central Africa!' 

Sec 6. Languages and Schools among the Negro Na- 
tions and Tribes. 

McCulloch says, there are more than two hundred dif- 
ferent languages spoken in Africa. The confusion and 
the difficulties of social and commercial intercourse aris- 
ing from so many languages and dialects, have been dis- 
cussed in section three of this chapter. 

With the exception of Mongolian countries, schools 
and education everywhere, in modern times, have been 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 389 

very generally under the charge of the clergy. The most 
of the schools in Mahometan countries, are connected 
with mosques, and are managed by the Mahometan 
priesthood, who are generally the teachers. Murray 
says, there are two mosques in Sockatoo, the principal 
city of Houssa, in Central Soudan. Malte-Brun says, 
the mosques of Bornou are adorned with very high tow- 
ers ; that " the great mosque contains the principal school, 
which Abdallah compared to the Academy in the mosque 
of El-Ashar at Cairo ; that besides the Koran, there are 
several books of science for the use of the numerous 
scholars, who learn there to read, to write, and to calcu- 
late." 

There are mosques and a clergy, more or less educated 
in the Arabic learning, in all the principal cities of the 
Mahometan Negro countries ; and schools are very gener- 
ally connected with them, in which are taught the Arab- 
ic language, writing and arithmetic, and a knowledge of 
the Koran. With the exception of the European and 
American missionaries, settlers and traders among the 
Negroes of Africa, and the few native scholars they have 
educated, all that have any education and can read and 
write, are Mahometans. Some of the educated Africans 
are Arabs, some are Moors, others of Berber descent ; 
some are mixed breeds, and some are pure aboriginal 
Negroes, who have received some education at Mahom- 
etan schools. The Mahometan Negroes generally, even 
those that cannot read, have acquired some information, 
and learned many of the useful arts, from their inter- 
course with Mahometans, better informed than them- 
selves ; which has made them very generally superior to 
pagan Negroes in the useful arts, in morals and moral 
sense, and in energy of character. 

McCulloch says, " With the exception of Egypt and 
Abyssinia, all the science and literature to be found in 
Africa, are of Arabic origin. The Arabs have schools in 
Cairo, Merou, and Darfoor, in the region of the Nile ; 
in Morocco, Fez, Algiers, Tunis, etc., in Barbary ; and 
there are schools among the Mandingoes, Foulahs, Jolofs, 
and other Mahometan nations of Central Africa or Sou- 
dan ; these are placed under Mahometan teachers, and 



390 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

assist in disseminating the rudiments of Arabic learn- 
ing and science." 

Malte-Brun says, " the inhabitants of Darfoor profess 
the Mahometan faith, have the Koran, and many among 
them have their children taught to read that work, and to 
write in Arabic!' " To the west of Darfoor " (he says) " is 
a country which the natives call Mobba. . . . Most 
of the inhabitants are Mahometan Negroes, some of 
whom have learned to read and write the Arabic lan- 
guage." 

A written language and books must precede schools. 
The pagan Negroes of Africa having neither a written 
language nor books, have no schools, no records, no re- 
corded history, and no information — except what is de- 
rived from personal observation, and tradition. 

We see that some progress has been made in tropical 
Africa, under Mahometan influences and agencies ; and 
that the Negro nations which have embraced the Ma- 
hometan faith, are greatly superior to the tribes and 
petty nations of pagan Negroes. But the level of Ma- 
hometan civilization, of Mahometan science and art, and 
the industry and condition of Mahometan nations, are all 
so low in the scale of improvement and progress, that not 
much can be expected from such a source ; and we have 
reason to believe that the Mahometan Negro nations in 
Central Africa, have already attained the highest position 
they will ever attain, under such influences. The only 
rational hope for the civilization of tropical Africa, must 
come from the settlements and colonies, conquests and 
domination, of Christian nations, sustained by competent 
military and naval power. If the present British expe- 
dition to Abyssinia should result in the conquest and 
colonization of a portion of that country, and the final 
subjection of the whole of it to British power, great good 
will come from it. 



Sec. 7. Arts and Industry, Improvements aizd Condition 
of the Negro Tribes and Kingdoms. 

To give the reader a proper view of the state of the 
useful arts, and of the condition of the people of trop- 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 39 1 

ical Africa, it is necessary to present negative, as well as 
positive facts and statements. They have no roads fit 
for wheeled carriages, and no bridges. Neither wheeled 
carriages, wagons, carts, ploughs, nor harrows are in use 
among the native nations, anywhere, unless they may be 
in some parts of Abyssinia. The natives do not use 
horses, mules, nor oxen, nor any other animal, for drawing 
loads, nor for ploughing and cultivating the earth. They 
raise comparatively few domestic animals, and make 
very little use of domestic animals of any kind. They 
also cultivate very few fruits and vegetables, compared 
with the great variety and large quantities cultivated in 
the same climate, in the West India Islands. Having 
fixed habitations, they are more advanced in the useful 
arts and have more industry than the roving Indians of 
the United States ; but they are far behind the Creeks 
and Cherokees, Chickasaws and Choctaws, and the 
New York Indians also, in productive industry and civ- 
ilization. 

Speaking of Central Africa, Murray says : " The 
plough appears never to have passed the desert ; the only 
instrument for turning tip the ground being the hoe, which 
does little more than scratch the surface ; yet this slight 
tillage, on grounds moistened by inundation or artificial 
watering, is sufficient to produce abundant crops." Of 
Western Africa he says : "The great mass of the Negro 
territory consists of an immense and impenetrable forest. 
. . . Farming does not constitute a distinct profes- 
sion, nor are domestic animals used to aid the labor of man. 
For a few days only, at seedtime and harvest, the people 
of a whole village assemble, as to a festival, the king: at 
their head, and issue forth to the sound of musical instru- 
ments. Each man carries a hoe or a little spade, with 
which he scratches rather than digs the ground, when 
just moistened by the rains ; and in that happy cli- 
mate it is fit to receive the seed, after such superficial 
culture." 

" Manufacturing industry " (says Murray) " seems to 
rank still lower. Cotton is, indeed, formed into those 
loose robes which are generally worn ; but it is mostly of 
a coarse fabric, and made by the females of each family for 



392 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

domestic consumption. „ . . The smith exercises his 
trade with considerable dexterity, and is an important 
personage, as furnishing arms to a warlike people ; yet he 
has not acquired the skill requisite to fabricate a gun. 
Gold, however, is worked into ornaments which excite 
the admiration even of Europeans. Mats are woven 
with considerable neatness and skill — being the staple 
articles of furniture, used for sitting and sleepiiig upon, and 
also as partitions to the houses." 

" Fishing (he says) is carried on by the Negroes with 
great activity, and supplies, indeed, almost the whole of 
tJieir animal food. . . . They have no modes, however, 
of salting the fish, which serve only for immediate 
consumption, and cannot be made an article of ex- 
port." 

McCulloch says : " Industry in Africa is at the lowest 
ebb. Except where they are associated with, or have 
been instructed by Europeans or Arabs, the Africans have 
made little progress in the arts. All the more laborious 
occupations are devolved on females ; and in some parts 
the wives of kings or petty princes, are made to till the 
land for the support of their barbarian lords. . . . 
There are, no doubt, sundry exceptions to the extreme in- 
dolence, stupidity, and barbarism that seem to distinguish 
the native races. The Mandingoes have made consider- 
able advances in civilization. . . . The tanning of 
leather, the weaving of cotton cloths, and the manufac- 
ture of mats, are everywhere carried on ; and in some 
parts the articles produced are of a very good quality, 
and have much beauty. But the natives are, for the 
most part, ignorant of the use of the shuttle; and in 
weaving pass the threads of the woof between those of 
the warp, one after the other, by the unassisted agency 
of the hand ; taking a month or two to despatch as much 
work as a European could effect by means of his loom 
(and flying shuttles) in as many hours. In all their 
works, they display very little contrivance or design, but 
generally only a sort of indolent, stupid routine." (Mod. 
Univ. Hist. xiv. p. 31.) 

In architecture, and even in masonry (says Mur- 
ray) the Negro nations rank very low. There is not, 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 393 

perhaps, in tropical native Africa, a house built of stone. 
Wood, earth, leaves, and grass are the only materials. 
One traveller compares their villages to groups of dog- 
kennels, rather than houses. The trunks of four large 
trees are driven into the ground, and connected by poles ; 
this framework is then covered with earth or clay. The 
doors not being above three feet high, the enterer creeps 
rather than walks in. The houses of the rich are scarcely 
better, though more in number ; for each wife has a 
house, and the whole establishment is surrounded by a 
wall of earth or twigs." 

"The furniture of the house" (he says) "bespeaks as 
much poverty as the house itself. A few seats, cups and 
pots, all of wood or earth ; coverlets of rushes, and per- 
haps a mat to sleep upon, form the entire amount of their 
accommodations. The rich distinguish themselves by 
fine mats, and occasionally by a brass kettle." 

Such is the low state of the useful arts, the general 
poverty, and the wretched condition of the Negro nations 
of Africa. The probability is that very few of the arts 
they have, originated there, but that they were nearly all 
borrowed from the Arabs and Moors, and from the 
traders, travellers, and missionaries of European na- 
tions, who have visited them ; and that without external 
aid, they would have been sunk as low in ignorance, stu- 
pidity, and barbarism, as the Hottentots, and the natives 
of Australia.* 

Sec. 8. Inferiority of the Negro Races, and the Causes 

thereof. 

Dr. Pritchard says : " The tribes in whose prevalent 
conformation the Negro type is discernible in an exag- 
gerated degree, are uniformly in the lowest stage of hu- 
man society ; they are eitJier ferociotcs savages, or stupid, 
sensual, and indolent. Such are the Papals, Bullams, and 
other rude hordes on the coast of Western Guinea, and 
many tribes near the Slave Coast, and in the Bight of 
Benin ; countries where the slave trade has been carried 
on to the greatest extent, and has exercised its usually 

* For which see ante, pages 346-348. 
17* 



394 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

baneful influence. On the other hand, wherever we hear 
of a Negro state, the inhabitants of which have attained 
any considerable degree of improvement in their social 
condition, we constantly find that their physical characters 
deviate considerably from the strongly marked or exagger- 
ated type of the Negro. The Ashantees, the Sulemas, and 
the Dahomas, are exemplifications of this remark. The 
Negroes of Guber and Houssa, where a considerable de- 
gree of civilization has long existed, are, perhaps, the 
finest race of genuine Negi'oes on the whole continent, un- 
less the Jolofs are to be excepted. The Jolofs have been 
a comparatively civilized people from the era of their first 
discovery by the Portuguese." (Researches into the 
History of Man, ii. p. 338, 3d ed.) 

Here the physical, moral, and intellectual degradation 
and inferiority of some of the Negro tribes, is clearly and 
forcibly stated ; and the causes are very properly attrib- 
uted to circumstances, both physical and moral, as mu- 
tually acting and reacting upon each other. They act 
upon the physical organization and the brain, and thereby 
act upon the intellect. They also act upon the brain and 
the intellect through the activities or inactivity of the 
mind and body, and the habits of thought or sluggish- 
ness thereby produced. 

McCulloch, commenting upon the foregoing passage 
from Dr. Pritchard, says : " The inevitable conclusion is, 
that every variety of the Negro type, which comprises the 
inhabitants of almost all Central (tropical) Africa, is in- 
dicative of mental inferiority ; and that ferocity and stu- 
pidity are the characteristics of those tribes, in which the 
peculiar Negro features are found most developed. We 
believe that this is a perfectly correct statement ; and 
we do not know that anything that can be said could 
show more conclusively the radical inferiority of the great 
bulk of the African people? 

" But " (he says) " we do not form our opinion as to their 
inferiority on their configuration and appearance ; but on 
the fact that while numberless European and Asiatic 
nations have attained to a high state of civilization, they 
(the Africans) continue, with few ezceptioiis, in nearly 
primeval barbarism? . . . The Africans, with the 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 395 

questionable exception of the ancient inhabitants of the 
valley of the Nile, have never discovered any consider- 
able degree of enterprise or invention, or any wish to dis- 
tinguish themselves either in arts or arms. From the 
remotest antiquity to the present day, they have been 
hewers of wood and drawers of water for others ; and have 
made little or no progress ; and the only legitimate infer- 
ence seems to be, that they are incapable of making it ; 
that civilization will not spring up spontaneously among . 
them ; and that if it ever grows up, it must be intro- 
duced from abroad, and be fostered and matured under 
foreign auspices." 

Mr. McCulloch accounts for their inferiority upon 
philosophical principles — as resulting from natural causes 
and circumstances. He says, " The low state of the arts 
is mainly attributable to the climate, which supersedes 
the use of many articles indispensable in regions more 
to the north or south. Mantifacturing industry is prin- 
cipally directed, in European and Asiatic countries, to 
the production of articles of clothing ; but where clothes 
are an incumbrance, and most of the people are satisfied 
if they have a piece of coarse common cotton stuff to 
wrap around their middle, it would be absurd to expect 
that this great department of manufacturing industry, 
and its subsidiary arts, should make any progress. The 
agriculture, too, is exceedingly unfavorable to the de- 
velopment of a spirit of enterprise and invention. . . . 
In the tracts watered by the periodical rains, or by the 
overflowing of the rivers, the rudest husbandry is suffi- 
cient, the heat of the sun operating on the moisture of 
the soil, being all but enough to produce the most lux- 
uriant crops. The houses; too, in tropical climates, 
may be constructed at comparatively little expense ; and 
except for the cooking of victuals, fires woidd be a nui- 
sance. It is idle, therefore, to wonder at the backward 
state of industry in Africa. The industry of a country 
ahvays bears some proportion to the wants and necessities 
of its inhabitants? 

So far as Mr. McCulloch goes, his views accord most 
fully with those heretofore presented ; though he does 
not attempt to discuss the direct and indirect effect of 



396 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

that climate upon the brain and its development, and 
upon the mental and moral character of man — as I have 
done. (See ante, sections 4 to 10 of Chapter XXV.) 

Malte-Brun says : " The Negroes of Congo appear to 
be inferior in understanding to many other African 
tribes. They possess, however, a very good memory ; 
but their sentiments, instincts, and desires are gross ; their 
passions quick and fierce ; their manners, customs, and 
general mode of life, in their savage and primitive state, 
approach so near to animality, that it is not surprising 
they should have considered monkeys as belonging to their 
own species. Their stupidity is such that they have never 
been able to comprehend the advantages of a mill. The 
women, who alone perform all the work, are obliged to 
pound the corn in a wooden mortar, and then grind it in 
a hollow stone, by turning about another stone with the 
hand." 

Verily the providences of God have doled out intellect 
very sparingly to the Negro race, and to all the aborigi- 
nal inhabitants of tropical Africa ; and yet, the question 
is forced upon us, by a great political party, for partisan 
purposes, urged on by the ecclesiastical influence of the 
most of the Northern and Western churches, Shall our 
country be Africanized ? Shall half a dozen of the South- 
ern States be subjected by the federal government to 
the supreme control of the African population, and the 
balance of power in as many other States, and in the 
federal government also, be given to the same class of 
uneducated and ignorant Negroes ? May a merciful God 
save our country, and every part of it, from such a ca- 
lamity ! from such an ignominious fate ! 

Sec. 9. French Possessions in Africa. 

The French established themselves at Senegal, on the 
west coast of Africa, and formed a colony there, in 1637. 
They have now several little settlements on the continent, 
and the neighboring islands, between the Senegal and 
Gambia rivers, divided into two districts. The north 
district consists of the Isle of St. Louis and three others, 
near the mouth of the Senegal, with some settlements 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 397 

on the banks of that river, and a few trading stations 
along the coast, between Capes Verd and Blanco ; and 
the south district comprises the small islands of Goree, 
Albreda, on the river Gambia, and some other stations 
south of Cape Verd. 

The population in 1836 is stated by McCulloch at 
18,040, of whom 18,000 were Mahometans and Negroes. 
He says, " Oxen, buffaloes, horses, and asses are used for 
domestic service as in Europe ; and goats, sheep, and 
hogs are reared." From such examples, introduced by 
Europeans, the tribes of Negroes in the vicinity may 
learn the proper use and value of domestic animals. 

In 1846 the Senegal colony and its dependencies had 
a population of 18,258, of whom 8,114 were free and 
10,144 were Negro slaves. Of the free inhabitants 282 
were Europeans, and 7,832 were persons of color. 

In 1862 there were at St. Louis and vicinity 27,636 
inhabitants, of which about 400 were Europeans ; and in 
all the French possessions, 113,291. The number in 
1863 had increased to 137,666, divided as follows : 

Arrondissement de St. Louis 81,000 

District of Goree 52,666 

" of Bakel 4,000 

Total 137,666 

The Province of Cayor, lying between the mouth of 
the Senegal and Cape Verd, having an estimated popu- 
lation of nearly 300,000, and an area of over 80,000 
square miles, has been annexed to the French colony of 
Senegal ; which swells the population directly subject to 
France, to about 423,000, with about 145,000 more na- 
tives who are dependent upon France — making in all 
568,000 inhabitants.* 

The exports in 1863 were valued at. . 14,499,793 francs. 
And the imports at 18,643,897 " 

Establishments on the Gold Coast and Gaboon have 
a population estimated at 3,000. 

* Almanac de Gotha for 1867, p. 549. 



39$ TROPICAL AFRICA. 

Commerce in 1862. 1863. 

Exports valued at 1,624,804 fr 944,463 fr. 

Imports " 555,551 fr 1,067,505 fr. 



Isle of Bourbon, or Reunion. 

This island lies in the Indian Ocean, about 440 miles 
east of Madagascar. It is about 40 miles long, 27 broad, 
and contains 231,550 hectares — nearly 900 square miles 
— distributed (as McCulloch says) as follows : 

Cultivated lands 65,702 hectares. 

Pasturage , 14,040 

Woods and forests 55,92 1 

Waste lands 95,887 

Total 231,550 

The waste lands are mostly upon the tops and inac- 
cessible sides of the mountains — in the interior; the 
cultivated lands are around the borders of the island, in 
the valleys, on the table-land, and in some parts upon 
the mountain slopes to an elevation more than 3,000 feet 
above the ocean. It has a fine and healthy climate for a 
tropical one, and is a very productive island. 

It was settled by the French in 167 1, and the popula- 
tion at the commencement of the present century was 
estimated at 5,000 whites, and 60,000 blacks. 

The population in 1836 consisted of 36,803 free per- 
sons, and 69,296 slaves, total 106,099. The population 
of 1848 was stated at 103,491, and in 1849 at onr y 
100,071. The decrease has been attributed to the sud- 
den emancipation of the Negro slaves, in December, 
1848. 

The Almanac de Gotha for 1862 states the population 
in 1858 at 161,321, "including 53,175 immigrants of 
diverse origins." 

The Annuaire de L'Economie Politique et de la Sta- 
tistique of France for 1866, states the superficies at 
251,160 hectares; the population in 1862 at 193,288, 
including 704 public officers and employes, and 1,069 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 399 

soldiers; and the population in 1863 at 197,265 ; and 
says the colored inhabitants are six times as numerous 
as the whites. Many of the former are from Hindostan 
and China. 

Commerce. 1862. 1863. 

Imports 49,615,034 fr 3^,355,309 fr. 

Exports 50,606,522 fr 55,706,960 fr. 

Sugar is the principal article of export, but coffee, 
cloves, and dyewoods are also exported, in considerable 
quantities. 

There is a very great density of population in the 
island, more than 200 to the square mile ; which exceeds 
the average density of the population of France and 
Italy. 

The exports produced upon so small an island are 
truly wonderful — exceeding fifty dollars for each person 
— old and young, male and female. The exports in 1836 
were only 15,615,249 francs — being less than one-third 
the amount in 1863, or 1862. What can the great in- 
crease be attributed to, unless to the superiority of Hin- 
doo and Chinese laborers, over African slaves ? The 
population did not increase from 1836 to 1848, when the 
most of the laborers were Negroes, but has nearly 
doubled since the introduction of laborers from Hindos- 
tan and China. Similar remarks apply to the Island of 
Mauritius, the population of which is more dense, and 
the exports much greater. 

Mayotte and its Dependencies. 

Mayotte and Nossi-Be are small islands held by the 
French, in Mozambique Channel — containing about 160 
square miles. In 1862 they had 19,797 inhabitants. 

Commerce. 1862. 1863. 

Imports 1,169,367 fr 392,022 fr. 

Exports 625,226 ft 1,013,721ft. 

Sugar is the principal export. 

The French possessions in Madagascar are stated in 
the next section. 



400 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

Sec. io. The Island of Madagascar. 

Madagascar extends from lat. 12 S. to 25 deg. 40 min. 
S. latitude ; is 950 miles in length ; has an average 
breadth of over 250 miles ; an area of about 250,000 
square miles ; and a population variously estimated at 
from two and a half to nearly five millions. It is nearly 
three times as large as Great Britain, and more than 
five and a half times as large as the Island of Cuba. 

McCulloch states the population at 4,700,000 ; and 
considering the productiveness of the island, the mild 
and healthy climate of the interior table-lands, and the 
progress made by the natives in the useful arts, it seems 
not improbable that there may be from 4,000,000 to 
5,000,000 of inhabitants. With the same labor and skill 
that are applied in Mauritius and Bourbon, it is capable 
of supporting 50,000,000. 

The French have settled on the Island of St. Mary, on 
the east coast of Madagascar, and built a fort called 
Fort Dauphin on the southeast coast, and made settle- 
ments there, and at two or three other places. In 1862 
they had 5,620 inhabitants, occupying a territory of 
about 350 square miles. 

There is a range of mountains running the whole 
length of the island, from 50 to 100 miles from the east 
coast, of an elevation varying from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, 
with peaks rising from 10,000 to 12,000 feet above the 
ocean ; and a lower range near the west coast, several 
hundred miles in length. Between those ranges and 
also between the eastern range and the sea, there are 
lower parallel ridges or hills, with intervening valleys and 
table-lands ; and between the most eastern and western 
ridges, the land gradually slopes down to the sea. The 
gradations of elevation above the ocean, give a great 
variety to the temperature, and to the native plants and 
productions of the island. The coasts are hot and gener- 
ally unhealthy for Europeans ; while the elevated table- 
lands and hills have a temperate and fine climate. 

The island abounds in springs and brooks, has nu- 
merous rivers, several lakes, and is a well-watered and 
productive country — having large and dense forests, 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 4OI 

valuable timber, generally a good supply of wood and 
timber for fuel and other purposes, an abundance of iron 
and rock-salt, also coal, copper, lead, and other metals. 
It has also numerous good and safe harbors ; and there 
are but few countries or islands in the world that have 
as large natural resources, in proportion to their area, as 
Madagascar has. 

Though peopled with diverse races, having different 
features and complexions, and divided into more than 
twenty independent tribes, having their own chiefs, until 
since the beginning of the present century ; yet their dia- 
lects were very nearly the same, belonging to the Malay- 
sian family of languages — with a mixture of Arabic 
words. They have also some Hebrew customs. Their 
language and customs indicate that the governing races 
were of Malaysian origin ; and that the present inhabit- 
ants are descendants of Malays, Arabs, and Hebrews, 
mixed together, and with the descendants of the primitive 
Negroes of the island. 

Mr. McCulloch says, " The population of Madagascar 
consists of four chief political divisions, the numbers of 
which are estimated as follows : 

Ovas (or Hovas), in the central table-land 800,000 

Sokalanas, on the west side of the island 1,200,000 

Betsileohs, south of the Hovas 1,500,000 

BetanimanaandBetsimasaskas, on the east coast 1,200,000 

Total 4,700,000 

" The distinction of color (he says) separates the pop- 
ulation into two great classes, the Ovahs and a few other 
tribes having olive complexions, handsome features, grace- 
ful persons, and lank dark hair ; while the inhabitants 
of the coasts greatly resemble the Papuas, being short 
and stout, almost black, with low foreheads, broad flat 
faces, large eyes and mouth, and long crisped hair. 
There are differences also in the languages spoken, 
and however amalgamated they are not one nation, but 
a combination of several distinct races. With the ex- 
ception of the Ovahs they are little better than barbarians, 



402 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

11111 almost naked, and practise most of the vices so gener- 
ally prevalent among the savages of the neighboring 
continent." 

" Circumcision (he says) is universal, marriages are 
formed in very early life, divorces are very common and 
easily effected ; the law permits polygamy, restricting the 
husband to twelve wives ; but few have more than two, 
or at most three. Fidelity to the marriage engagement, how- 
ever, forms no part of the female character, and modesty 
is a virtue almost unknown? 

"An intercourse (says McCulloch) has long been 
carried on with Madagascar by Arabs from Muscat, 
Indians from the Presidency of Bombay, Europeans from 
the Cape of Good Hope, and Americans from Brazil and 
the United States." 

When discovered by the Portuguese in 1506, they had 
made considerable progress in the useful arts ; but the 
governing classes having come from the Malay Islands 
and the continent of Asia, they probably brought all 
their arts with them, and there is more reason to believe 
that, in their isolated condition, they had degenerated, 
than there is that they had made any progress, or origi- 
nated any of their arts themselves. Their condition was 
very low in the scale of civilization. They were idola- 
ters ; practised polygamy, infanticide, and slavery ; were 
sunk in sensuality and superstition, as all the pagan 
tribes of tropical Africa are ; and were destitute of an 
alphabet, written language, or any form of records ; and 
hence they had no written laws, were incapable of form- 
ing and maintaining a national organization, and were 
divided into numerous petty independent tribes, as bar- 
barians without a written language, always are. In such 
a state of things, without any tribunals to settle differ- 
ences between the chiefs, they were often waging war 
with each other. 

" Madagascar was divided (as McCulloch says) into 28 
provinces, all of which have their separate chiefs ; but 
for some years past, the Ovahs have been the prevailing 
tribe, the chief of which is, in effect, the king of the island, 
receiving tribute from, and exercising sovereignty over all 
tlie rest? Let us inquire and learn how that sovereignty 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 4O3 

was acquired, and how all the tribes became united under 
one chief and one government. 

The Ovahs or Hovahs occupy the central table-land 
of the island, which has a temperate climate ; and in the 
progress of many centuries, perhaps a thousand years or 
more, they became superior in intellect and in the arts, 
to the tribes occupying the low country near the coast. 
" In the beginning of the present century (it is said in 
the New American Cyclopaedia) Madagascar was divided 
into a number of independent states, one of the most 
powerful of which was Imerina, a subdivision of Ankova, 
the country peopled by the Hovas. In 1808 Radama 
ascended the throne of Imerina, on the death of his 
father. In 18 16 he was visited by British agents, with 
whom he formed a treaty in 18 17, by which the slave 
trade was abolished, on condition of an annual supply of 
ammunition and arms from the British government, which 
also sent officers to instruct the native soldiers in mili- 
tary tactics. With the arms and discipline tints obtained, 
Radama, in a few years, was enabled to subdue the whole 
island? 

"In 1 81 8 the London missionary society sent a num- 
ber of missionaries, accompanied by artisans, to instruct 
the people in the useficl arts. The native language was 
reduced to writing, a grammar prepared, and the Bible 
translated and printed. In the course of ten years, about 
15,000 of the natives had learned to read, and a large 
number were converted to Christianity ; " the king gave 
encouragement and protection to the missionaries, and 
decreed religious toleration ; schools, printing presses, 
and churches were established ; infanticide and some 
other barbarous customs were abolished ; and rapid pro- 
gress was made in education, in the useful arts, and in 
civilization. 

Radama died suddenly in 1828, poisoned, as was sup- 
posed, by his chief queen, Ranavalana, who, with her 
paramour, was exasperated at the progress of Christian- 
ity and the decline of idolatry. She succeeded to the 
sovereignty, was proclaimed queen, and reigned as ab- 
solute sovereign of the whole island, for 33 years, and 
until her death in 1861. She was cruel and despotic, 



404 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

sensual and superstitious, and hesitated at no barbarity 
to consolidate her power, and terrify her enemies. She 
annulled many of the acts of her husband ; closed the 
missionary schools ; put an end to the labors of the mis- 
sionaries ; persecuted the native Christians ; and ordered 
the execution of a great number of persons, during her 
reign. 

At the death of Ranavalana, her son by her paramour, 
was crowned king, by the name of Radama IT. ; but being 
a weak and dissolute prince, surrounded with boon com- 
panions and debauchees, by whom he was induced to 
adopt a measure and a policy which was deemed dan- 
gerous to the peace and welfare of the country, a con- 
spiracy was formed among the chiefs and principal men, 
and he was strangled in 1863. The conspirators adopt- 
ed a constitution for the kingdom, and offered the throne 
to Rabodo, the wife of the deceased, who took the oath 
prescribed, and was proclaimed Queen of Madagascar, 
by the name of Rabodo I. 

The following provisions of the constitution, published 
in Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia for 1863, are worthy 
of notice : 

" The word of the sovereign alone is not to be law ; 
but the nobles and heads of the people, with the sover- 
eign, are to make the laws. 

" Perfect liberty and protection are guaranteed to all 
foreigners, who are obedient to the laws of the country. 

" Friendly relations are to be maintained with all 
other nations. 

" Duties are to be levied ; but commerce and civiliza- 
tion are to be encouraged. 

" Protection, and liberty to worship, teach, and promote 
the extension of Christianity, are secured to all native 
Christians ; and the same protection and liberty are guar- 
anteed to those who are not Christians. 

" Domestic slavery is not abolished ; but masters are 
at liberty to give freedom to their slaves, or to sell them 
to others. 

" No person is to be put to death for any offence, by 
the word of the sovereign alone ; and no one is to be 
sentenced to death, till twelve men have declared such 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 405 

person to be guilty of the crime to which the law awards 
the punishment of death." 

Such noble provisions of constitutional law, show that 
great progress has been made in Madagascar, in civiliza- 
tion, in law, and in government ; though neither the 
words thereof, nor the ideas, originated with the natives 
of that island. On the contrary, they were borrowed 
from English law, and from English books ; but that does 
not detract from their value to the people, who have had 
the wisdom to borrow them. 

Mr. McCulloch gives a list of dyewoods, and plants 
that are indigenous to the island — including cotton, in- 
digo, tobacco, allspice, pepper, ginger, and rice ; and says, 
" Various other vegetable productions have been intro- 
duced (from other countries), such as the cocoa-nut, 
bread-fruity yam, manioc, lemon, orange, peach, mulberry, 
quince, and pomegranate. Several varieties of the Cape 
Vine have been found to thrive well ; the coffee-plant has 
been brought from Mauritius, and the potatoe is largely 
cultivated, and highly esteemed ; but the common Euro- 
pean cerealia have met with little encouragement." 

Rice is extensively cultivated, also the manioc potatoe 
and some other roots ; and cotton is raised in considera- 
ble quantities. McCulloch says: " Neither wagon, carl, 
sledge, nor beasts of burden is used in getting in the har- 
vest. The European cerealia have been introduced by tlie 
missionaries ; the plough and harrow have likezvise been 
brought into use, and oxen broken in to cultivate tlie 
ground ; but the natives generally prefer their old and 
imperfect methods of preparing the soil. In some parts 
.iron ore is found in large quantities, on or near the sur- 
face, whence it is gathered in baskets, and smelted for 
use by the action of a charcoal fire, in a rude furnace of 
stone-work. The native forges are equally simple ; the 
anvil, about the size of a sledge-hammer, is fixed in the 
ground near the fire, and the smith squats on a piece of 
board while his attendants, with large hammers, strike 
the metal according to his directions. The articles thus 
manufactured comprise spears and javelins, knives and 
hatchets, spades, chisels, and hammers, a rude sort of 
plane-irons, pots and spoons, lamps and nails ; besides 



406 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

which, they have been taught by the English to make 
hinges, screws and locks, as well as to draw copper and 
iron wire. The manufacture of swords and fire-arms 
was introduced by the French a few years ago ; and the 
native gold-smiths and silver-smiths evince considerable 
ingenuity in making rings, chains, and other gold orna- 
ments ; silver dishes, mugs, spoons, &c." 

" The pit-saw " (he says) " has been brought into gen- 
eral use, and the native carpentry has been much im- 
proved by the use of European tools. The art of turning 
wood is practised by the best workmen of the capital ; 
earthenware is made with considerable skill and taste ; 
and many hands are employed in making rope and twine, 
as well as tanning leather. The chief occupation of the 
people, however, next to the cultivation of rice, is the spin- 
ning and weaving of silk, cotton, and linen fabrics ; but all 
the processes are extremely simple, imperfect, and tedious? 

From these statements, the reader will perceive that 
many of the plants and vegetables, fruits and grains, as 
well as the arts and tools, methods and processes of the 
people, were introduced from abroad — by the English 
and French, and by the missionaries. 

The natives of Madagascar have made great progress 
during the last fifty years, and are in advance of every 
native people of tropical Africa, except the Abyssinians, 
and are about equal to them ; but the reader can see and 
realize the sources and getms of their national union and 
organization, and of nearly all their arts and civilisation. 
Those germs consist of European arts and tools, English 
arms and military science, missionary learning and labor, 
a written language and schools, the printing-press and 
books, the Bible and Christianity, and lastly English laiv. 
Such germs of civilization and progress never originated 
in a tropical country. 

By reason of the development of the intellect, and of 
the moral character of the Hovas in a comparatively 
temperate climate, and a fortunate concurrence of circum- 
stances, the labors of the missionaries have been blessed 
with greater success in Madagascar than they have among 
any of the Negro tribes of Africa. 

The progress heretofore made, and the revolution and 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 407 

constitution of 1863, all contribute to render it probable, 
that Madagascar will now increase rapidly in civilization, 
productive industry, and population ; and that it will soon 
become a Christian country. 

Sec 11. Liberia and the American Colonization Society. 

Liberia is situated on the west coast of Africa, com- 
prising the north-west part of Guinea. It is bounded 
north by the British colony of Sierra Leone, and extends 
along the coast south-easterly about 500 miles. It has 
several inlets ; and harbors at Cape Mesurado, Cape 
Mount, Cape Palmas, and Bassa Cove. It has several 
small rivers, of which St. Paul, that enters the ocean 
at Cape Mesurado, is the largest ; Monrovia, the princi- 
pal town, is situated at its mouth. It is navigable only 
about 18 miles from the ocean. The other rivers of im- 
portance, are the St. John's, which empties into Bassa 
Cove ; Cape Mount river, which empties into the ocean 
at Cape Mount ; and the Grand Sesters, east of the St. 
John's. McCulloch remarks : " The want of any great 
navigable river that might have opened an intercourse 
with the interior, is a heavy drawback upon the prosper- 
ity of the colony ; and will always hinder it from becom- 
ing a place of much commercial importance. The coast 
is low, but the country gradually rises towards the inte- 
rior, and at about 20 or 30 miles from the sea, the hills 
are of considerable elevation." 

The country is said to be very productive, and the cli- 
mate better and less destructive to white men than 
the most of the coast of Guinea ; and though less fatal, 
yet it is still formidable to black men born and raised in 
temperate regions. The most of the colored immi- 
grants from the United States have suffered from fevers 
for a year or two, until they become acclimated. 

"Agriculture" (says the New American Cyclopaedia) 
"has made but little progress in Liberia. Horses, mules 
and asses cannot endure the climate, and soon wear out and 
die, and the oxen are said to be too small to be of much 
service in field labor. The native process of farming is 
extremely simple • * * * and the American immi- 



408 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

grants follow, to a great extent, the native mode of culti- 
vation. They have added largely to the list of agricul- 
tural products, and among other plants, have introduced 
the sugar-cane, which is well adapted to the soil and 
climate. There are several sugar-mills in the country." 
Such facts show many things in relation to the climate 
and country. They show — ist, its unhealthy character ; 
for if horses and mules cannot stand the climate, it must 
be extremely debilitating to men — to blacks as well as 
whites. 

2d. They show the indolence and inefficiency of the 
colored inhabitants from the United States, as well as 
the natives. The enervating and debilitating effects 
of such a hot and bilious climate, produce languor and 
indolence, and soon destroy the energies of the greatest 
part of any people. 

The colony of Liberia was established by the American 
Colonization Society, which was organized at the city of 
Washington, December 25, 1 8 16, by some of our most 
eminent and most patriotic men. Hon. Bushrod Wash- 
ington was its first President, and continued President 
thereof until January 18, 1830 ; Hon. Charles Carroll 
was the second President until January, 1833 ; Ex-Presi- 
dent James Madison the third, until December, 1835 ; 
Hon. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, the fourth, until January, 
1853 ; and Hon. J. H. Latrobe the fifth, since January 
19, 1853. 

The Society has confined its labors to colonizing in 
Africa, with their own consent, the free people of color 
of the United States. 

The New York Observer says, " The whole amount of 
the receipts of the Society during fifty years (to Decem- 
ber, 1866), was $2,141,507.77 ; and the State Coloniza- 
tion Societies received, while acting in an independent 
capacity, as nearly as we can arrive at it, $417,399.33, 
making a grand total of $2,558,007.10. 

"The Society has given passage to 11,909 persons of 
color, sent in 147 vessels or voyages. Of these people 
4,541 were born free, 344 purchased their freedom, 5,947 
were emancipated for the purpose of going to Liberia ; 
the status of '68 is unknown; 346 were sent, in 1865, 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 409 

from Barbadoes, W. L, and 753 of the class popularly 
known as ' freedmen,' have left this country since the 
termination of the war. Besides these, 1,227 have been 
settled at ' Maryland, in Liberia,' by the Maryland State 
Colonization Society. The total emigration, therefore, 
under colonization auspices and expense, has been 13,- 
136. 

" The Government of the United States has made the 
settlements founded by the Society the asylum of 5,722 
recaptured Africans, mostly taken on the high seas by its 
men-of-war. 

" The ship Elizabeth, the ' Mayflower ' of Liberia, 
sailed from New York February 6, 1820, with 86 emi- 
grants, and arrived at Sierra Leone, March 9. These 
pioneers were landed at Campelar, Shebro Island, March 
20, 1820. This place was soon abandoned, and the sur- 
vivors removed to Fourah Bay. 

"A treaty was signed at and for Mesurado, Dec. 15, 
1 82 1, the colonists removed, and the American flag 
raised there April 25, 1822. 

"The several settlements, with one exception, were 
formed into a Commonwealth, the Legislature of which 
began its first session Aug. 30, 1839. 

"The people, in Convention assembled, July 26, 1847, 
constituted and declared themselves a 'free, sovereign, 
and independent State, by the name and title of the Re- 
public of Liberia.' 

"The flag of the new Republic was raised Aug. 24, 
1847, with demonstrations of joy and gratitude. 

" The territory owned by the Liberian Government 
extends some six hundred miles along the West African 
coast, and reaches back indefinitely toward the interior, 
the native title to which has been fairly purchased. 

" It has brought within its elevating influences at least 
200,000 of the native inhabitants, who are gradually ac- 
quiring the arts, comforts, and conveniences of civilized 
life. It has a regularly organized government, modelled 
after our own, with all the departments in successful 
operation. Schools, seminaries, a college, and some fifty 
churches, belonging to seven different denominations, are 
in a hopeful condition. Towns and cities are being built 

18 



41 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

where once the slave trade flourished with all its untold 
cruelty, bloodshed, and carnage ; agriculture is extending, 
and commerce is increasing. 

" Liberia has exercised for near twenty years, all the 
powers and attributes of an independent government, 
and has been recognized as such by the leading pow- 
ers of the world." 

In forming their Constitution, the colored men of Li- 
beria exhibited more common sense than many of their 
white friends in the United States. Their Constitution 
provides that, " All elections shall be by ballot, and every 
male citizen possessing real estate shall have the right of 
suffrage. None but citizens shall hold real estate in the 
Republic. None but persons of color shall be admitted to 
citizenship." Such provisions show that the leading col- 
ored men of Liberia have no idea of political equality ; they 
have no idea of putting the ignorant and the worthless, who 
have no property, on a political equality with themselves, 
and have no idea of being interfered with by the white race. 

The Rev. Charles W. Thomas, of Georgia, who visited 
there in 1857, says, "Society in Liberia is as good as can 
be reasonably expected ; indeed, we found a degree of 
refinement and taste for which we were not prepared. 
The people desire to live in comfortable and pretty houses, 
the ladies and beaux dress in the fashion, and an aristocracy 
of means and education is already set up." They have no 
idea, it seems, of either social or political equality. 

The experience of the State of Liberia will eventually 
test several questions, and dissipate many delusions now 
more or less prevalent. It will test — 1st. the climate of 
tropical Africa, its fitness for the abode of Americans 
of African descent, and its capacity to sustain civilization, 
without a constant tendency to corruption and degrada- 
tion, and to decline in morals as well as in industry. 

2d. It will test the capacity of the Negro race for self- 
government. 

That they are unfit for a republican representative sys- 
tem of government, with frequent elections and universal 
manhood suffrage, seems to my mind very certain. That 
they may be fitted for self-government with the elective 
franchise confined to property-holders, and to business 



DUTCH REPUBLICS. 41I 

and professional men, and also to the election of legisla- 
tive and the chief executive officers, as in Hayti, seems 
more probable. If the experiment succeed better in 
Liberia than in Hayti and St. Domingo, it will be because 
Protestant institutions are better than Catholic, and be- 
cause Anglo-American civilization shall prove superior to 
French civilization. 

Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia for 1865, says, "The 
trade of Liberia flows mostly in European channels. The 
London Company of African merchants has purchased, 
and was (in January, 1866) about to send out a steamer 
for the local trade of Sierra Leone, with the northern riv- 
ers, Sherbro and Liberia ; and steps have been taken to 
establish regular steam navigation on the Niger for the 
purposes of trade." 

At the meeting of the African Steamship Company in 
London, December 6, 1865, it was reported that with 
regard to the two new ships, the Mandingo had been 
launched, and would be ready for sea in a week ; and the 
Lagos was launched December 3. These ships would 
be built out of the income of the Company, and they 
would have one ship more than they ever had before. 

The formation of the Commercial Company of Africa, 
is another London enterprise, the capital of which is fixed 
at ,£300,000, with a present issue of ,£200,000, in shares 
of ;£io each. The prospectus states that the company 
is formed for the purpose of conducting, upon an exten- 
sive scale, a trade in the Bights of Benin, Biafra, the river 
Niger, and other parts of Africa. 

Such are the agencies which have been put in opera- 
tion for the civilization of Western Africa. Well organ- 
ized governments and military power, steam navigation 
and commerce, are as necessary as missionaries and 
schools, to introduce the elements of civilization into 
such a country, and among such a people. In fact, the 
latter have very little efficiency without the former. 

Sec. 12. The Dutch Republics of Africa. 

The Orange Republic and the Trans-Vaal Republic 
of Southern Africa, have been heretofore referred to. 



412 DUTCH REPUBLICS. 

They were both founded by Dutch peasants or Boors, 
from the colony of the Cape, who, being unwilling to 
submit to British laws and British policy, emigrated north 
into the country of the Hottentots, Caffres, and Bechu- 
anas ; and after several severe battles with those peoples, 
and with British troops sent to subdue them, they finally 
succeeded in establishing themselves at several different 
places in the interior of the continent, north of the 
Orange River, and in founding independent republics. 

The Orange River Republic is bounded southerly by 
the Orange River, which separates it from the colony of 
the Cape of Good Hope and Caffraria, east by the Dra- 
genberg Mountains, which separate it from the colony 
of Natal, and north and west by the Vaal River. The 
area has been estimated at from 40,000 to 50,000 square 
miles ; the white inhabitants are supposed to number 
from 15,000 to 20,000 ; and the natives are much more 
numerous — making about 50,000 in all. 

The Trans-Vaal Republic is bounded south by the 
Vaal River, which is a tributary of the Orange, and east 
by the mountains which separate it from the Zoolu 
country. The area has been estimated at about 80,000 
square miles. The New American Cyclopaedia says, 
"The number of white inhabitants was set down at 
40,000, in 1852," and the whole population has been esti- 
mated at over 100,000. 

The country consists mostly of elevated table lands, 
from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea, with extensive 
plains and prairies. It is a dry and healthy country, 
and is generally better adapted to grazing and stock- 
raising than to the cultivation of grain. The white in- 
habitants are descendants of emigrants from the Nether- 
lands to the Cape of Good Hope. Their ancestors 
brought with them, and they still retain, the Protestant 
religion, the language and learning, the useful arts, and, 
to a considerable extent, the laws and customs of the 
mother country. They are a plain and frugal, straight- 
forward and industrious people. They have mechanics 
and merchants, business and professional men among 
them ; but the most of them live by agriculture and 
raising cattle. They have established schools and a dem- 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 413 

ocratic system of government, constructed leading roads 
to facilitate business intercourse and commerce, and are 
teaching the natives around and with them, by example 
as well as by precept, the useful arts, and the habits of 
civilized life. They are doing a great and good work 
in introducing new arts and methods, new grains and 
fruits ; and in promoting order and industry, civilization 
and Christianity. These republics, with the colony of 
the Cape of Good Hope, and the colony of Natal, will 
probably be the means, within a century, of extending 
the blessings of civilization and Christianity to nearly 
the whole of South Africa lying south of the 20th degree 
of south latitude. 



Sec 13. Abyssinia. 

Abyssinia rises up from the Red Sea in a series of 
plateaus, mountain ridges, and intervening valleys. The 
most elevated plateaus are from 6,000 to 8,000 feet above 
the sea, and the ridges of the mountains from 8,000 to 
10,000 feet. The elevation of the greatest part of 
Abyssinia and the chains of mountains serve to cool 
the atmosphere, and make the climate much the most 
healthy and desirable of any in tropical Africa ~It has 
an area estimated at about 300,000 square miles. 

It is a humid, well-watered country ; having several 
rivers, which constitute the principal tributaries to the 
Nile. It is productive, and might be made a rich agri- 
cultural country. Wheat, barley, Indian corn and other 
grains, cotton and coffee, are cultivated. The religion 
and morals of the people have been heretofore examined 
(in section 5 of this chapter). 

" Separated from Europe (says Malto-Brun), by dis- 
trust as well as by natural obstacles, and insulated in the 
midst of Mahometan and pagan nations, the Abyssinians, 
though possessing vigor and talent, languish in a condi- 
tion not unlike that of Europe in the 12th century'.' But 
the greatest evils arise from the want of proper organ- 
ization and an efficient government. It is divided into 
several states or kingdoms, nearly independent of each 
other, of which Amhara, Tigre, and Shoa are the princi- 



414 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

pal. The people, consisting of a mixture of different 
races, having but a nominal union and feeble govern- 
ment, the States have been constantly in a state of 
anarchy, or involved in war with each other and with 
neighboring tribes of savages. The New American 
Cyclopaedia says, " For the last century, war has raged 
in Amhara and Tigre. Success has varied ; at the 
present time Amhara appears to be the most power- 
ful division of the empire. Bid anarchy is and has been 
the only abiding characteristic of the country? 

Nearly the whole of tropical Africa is in the same dis- 
organized condition of anarchy and civil war, or war 
between hostile tribes and petty kingdoms. 

McCulloch says, " No means exist by which to form any 
probable estimate of the number of people in Abyssinia. 
If tJie country were tranquil, it could hardly fail, owing 
to the fruitfulness of the soil and the general healthiness 
of the climate, to be exceedingly populous ; but the anarchy 
and civil war in which it is constantly involved more 
than neutralize these advantages, and keep the popula- 
tion far below its natural level. Its total amount is esti- 
mated in the Weimar Almanac at 4,500,000 ; and this, 
perhaps, is as good a guess as can be made." That 
estimate puts it at about fifteen to the square mile. 

The New American Cyclopaedia puts the population 
at only 3,500,000, which is less than twelve to the square 
mile. The elevation, climate, and productions of Abys- 
sinia are nearly the same as those of Mexico and New 
Grenada ; and certainly it has not been more distracted 
than Mexico with revolutions and civil wars. Mexico is 
a new country ; more than four millions of the inhabi- 
tants are on the south third of its territory, and, con- 
sidering the climate, large natural resources and condi- 
tion of Abyssinia, and comparing them with Mexico, 
Algiers, and Morocco, it seems to me probable that the 
population of Abyssinia must be over 4,000,000. It has 
nearly a fortieth part the area, and I think about one- 
twentieth part the natural resources, of the whole conti- 
nent of Africa ; and it probably has one-twentieth part 
of the population. 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 415 

Sec. 14. Countries of Eastern Africa. 

The Soumali tribes occupy a large country on the east 
coast of Africa, bounded north by the Gulf of Aden, 
north-west by Abyssinia, and west by the territory of 
the Gallas tribes. They are a pastoral people, pay but 
little attention to agriculture, and are supposed to be of 
Arabic descent. They most of them are nomadic, have 
no fixed habitations, and live principally upon the pro- 
duce of their flocks and herds. 

The Gallas tribes occupy a large district of country 
west of the Soumali, and south-south-west from Abys- 
sinia, extending south nearly to the equator. The 
New American Cyclopaedia says, " They are also found 
in Abyssinia, where they have made extensive con- 
quests. They seem to hold an intermediate place be- 
tween the Arabian and Negro races. * * * * 
They are mostly pastoral in their mode of life, although 
some of the tribes, bordering on Abyssinia, are tillers 
of the soil. Mahometanism has made some converts 
among them ; but the majority of the tribes adhere to 
paganism. * * * The tribes are independent of 
each other." 

The Gallas are a restless and warlike people, who live 
by plunder as much as they can. Murray says, they and 
the neighboring tribes west of them " surpass in barba- 
rism even the rest of Africa." 

The manner in which the Soumali and Gallas tribes 
live, and the small amount of their industry, preclude 
the possibility of the population being very large, in pro- 
portion to the areas of the countries they inhabit. The 
average number of inhabitants to the square mile in 
Arabia is only about 10 ; in Persia 15 ; in Turkey in 
Asia 35 ; in Independent Tartary 8 ; in Chinese Tar- 
tary 4 ; and in Mongolia less than three. The colony of 
the Cape of Good Hope has only about three inhabitants 
to the square mile ; Natal colony 8 ; Caffraria and the 
Zoolu country 7 to 8 ; the Orange and Transvaal Re- 
publics less than two ; the country of the Hottentots, 
Cimbebas, and Damaras, less than one ; and the country 
of the Bechuanas less than two inhabitants to the square 



4l6 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

mile. Such being in accordance with the medium esti- 
mates made by authors and travellers, it does not seem 
probable to me that the countries of the Somauli and 
Gallas tribes are much if any more densely populated 
than the country of the Kaffirs — not exceeding 8 or 10 
inhabitants to the square mile. 

The coast of Zanguebar and Mozambique is more 
thickly inhabited than it is from 200 to 500 miles in the 
interior. The whole eastern coast of Africa, between 
Nubia on the north and the tropic of Capricorn on the 
south, lying east of the 30th degree of longitude, com- 
prises about 2,000,000 square miles ; and it may have 
20,000,000 of inhabitants, or an average of 10 to the 
square mile ; which is more than has been generally 
assigned to it. 

Sec. 15. Countries of Central Africa, or Soudan 

Central Africa is bounded north by the desert of 
Sahara, west by Senegambia and the Kong Mountains, 
and east by Sennar. The south line is undefined — 
being between the 7th and 8th degrees of north latitude. 
It is about 2,500 miles in length from east to west, and 
over 600 miles wide from north to south, and comprises 
nearly 1,500,000 square miles ; including the kingdoms 
or States of Darfoor, Wadai, Bergoo. Begharmi, Kanem, 
Bornou, Sockatro and Adamana, Houssa, Timbuctoo, 
Bamhara, and several smaller States. 

Those countries occupy the most of the valley of the 
great river Niger and its tributaries ; and the basin of 
Lake Tchad, and the rivers which empty into it. They 
comprise the best watered countries in the interior of 
Africa ; and the only well watered countries lying in 
the central parts of the continent. Though not so well 
watered and humid as Abyssinia, yet they are suffi- 
ciently humid to render the most of the lands productive. 
Wheat and other grains are cultivated, of which two 
crops may be produced annual]y ; and the markets are 
well supplied with fruits and vegetables. 

The greatest part of the people having embraced the 
Moslem faith, they have, to some extent, acquired the ad- 



TROPICAL AFRICA. 417 

vantages of the Arabic language and learning, Ma- 
hometan arts and methods of industry, Mahometan law 
and morals, and Mahometan civilization and schools. 
These advantages make the people superior in intelli- 
gence and morals, arts and industry, to all the pagan 
nations of Africa. They are superior in law and order, 
and in their modes of living, as well as in agriculture 
and the mechanic arts. Those countries (and particularly 
the western half of them, which are much the best 
watered) have a larger population in proportion to their 
area, than any of the countries of Eastern Africa, south of 
Abyssinia. Their population has been estimated by 
some at 15,000,000 ; and by some much higher. The in- 
formation we have indicates to my mind, that they prob- 
ably have about 20,000,000 of inhabitants. 



Sec. 16. The Interior of Africa, south of Soudan. 

Nothing is known of the central part of the Continent 
of Africa, lying between the 10th degree of north latitude 
and the 12th degree of south latitude, east of Biafra, 
Loango, Congo, and Angola, and west of the 30th de- 
gree of longitude — except the very imperfect information 
derived from the natives. That vast region has never 
been visited by European travellers ; and the country 
south of it, between the 12th and 20th degrees of 
south latitude, has been but little explored, and is very 
imperfectly known. No great discoveries have been 
made in relation to the people of that central region 
of the country, since Malte-Brun wrote his great work on 
Geography. He says, " North of the Orange river lies 
the country of the Great Namaquas, which, to about 26 
degrees south, and longitude 19 degrees east, is watered 
by the tributary streams of the Fish and Orange rivers, 
and therefore tolerably fertile ; but to the east and north 
of this, lies the great Southern Sahara or desert, exteiiding 
probably to the equator, and inhabited by wandering Bush- 
men. This vast region of sand,. studded here and there 
by trees, is bounded on the eastern side by the Betju- 
anas, Marootzees, and other tribes. . . . These 
Bushmen possess herds of cattle. . . . The surface 

18* 



41 8 TROPICAL AFRICA. 

of this great desert, which reaches from the Namaquas to 
Long Mountain and the Wanketzees, extending 1,000 miles 
to the north, and 500 to the west of Laiakoo, is not per- 
fectly level, and though generally covered with sand, has 
tufts of withered grass in the hollows. Water is ex- 
tremely scarce. The extent of this desert, as obtained 
from natives, brings it to the 10th degree of south lati- 
tude ; in short, into the country of the Giagas or Jagas, 
of Congo, who, it is evident, are nothing but the wander- 
ing Bushmen of the desert, and the desolating chieftains 
of the Betjuanas and Boroolongs." 

"The Portuguese African slave merchants have al- 
ready often (says Malte-Brun) conducted convoys of Ne- 
groes from Angola (on the west coast), to Senna (on the 
Zambezi river), and from Senna to Angola. The two 
posts of Pedras Negras in the interior of Congo, and 
of Chicova in the interior of Monomotapa, are the re- 
spective points of departure ; the distance is 325 leagues, 
and its performance occupies a whole season ; wandering 
hordes are frequently met with, and elevated plateaus are 
crossed, where gold dust is collected." 

Again, he says, " The Giagas or Jagas traverse immense 
deserts to the east of Congo. It is asserted that these 
Tartars of the torrid zone, after having joined the Mow- 
Zimbees, appeared as devastating conquerors on the coast 
of Quiloa. . . . It is from these data that the inte- 
rior of SoutJiem Africa appears to us an extensive plateau, 
where wandering hordes are dispersed without control, 
without lazvs, or any regidar employment" 

" A caravan of Africans (he says) every year leaves 
Quiloa, which goes through the interior of the country to 
the western coast of Africa, and returns by the same 
road. They feed on the vegetables and fruits foitnd on the 
road, and particularly on the tamarind. . . . From 
these reports it may be presumed, that at present there 
are no considerable nations even half civilized in the south- 
ern interior of Africa. The idea is further confirmed by 
what is known concerning the manners of some tribes." 

"Immediately to the east of Congo, are the regions 
where are found the wandering and barbarous tribes called 
Jagas, or Giagas, by travellers. These people do not cul- 



POPULATION OF AFRICA. 419 

tivate the soil, and possess only such cattle as they take 
in war ; they invade the fertile countries of their neigh- 
bors, consume the produce, and after having laid every- 
thing waste, search after other booty. The Jagas devour 
their prisoners. . . . Old men and the sick are 
abandoned without pity. The dead are buried in vaulted 
tombs, dressed in their richest clothes, and have as com- 
panions two of their wives, who are buried alive." 

" The Jagas, who have no horses, fight on foot with 
great intrepidity ; they entrench their camps with dili- 
gence. . . . Such (he says) are the rude and 
extravagant manners of the population of Central Africa. 
They afford little hope of interesting discoveries for his- 
tory." 

Such is the character (so far as it is known) of the 
greatest part of the interior of Southern Africa ; and 
such is the barbarism and despicable character of the 
wandering tribes of savages that roam over it. Such 
countries, and all countries inhabited by wandering tribes 
of savages, without arts, fixed habitations, or industry, 
must necessarily be very sparsely settled. 

The British colony of the Cape, and the countries 
north of it, are very arid, and have but little produc- 
tive land. The remarks in sec. n., ch. 28, p. 350, in 
relation to the aridity, the climate, and the natural re- 
sources of central Australia, apply also to interior and 
Southern Africa. Including the whole of South Africa 
lying south of the tropic, with the interior of the conti- 
nent to the 7th degree of north latitude, from the 30th 
degree of east longitude, west to the eastern borders of 
the countries of Western Africa, will embrace an area of 
about 2,000,000 square miles ; with a population probably 
less than 5,000,000 ; and it is not unlikely that the popu- 
lation may not exceed 2,000,000. There is no reason to 
doubt that it is less than the population of Mongolia and 
Chinese Tartary. 

Sec. 1 7. Population of the Continent of Africa. 

The population of every country of Africa, except the 
British and French colonies, is uncertain, being mere 



420 POPULATION OF AFRICA. 

estimates from imperfect data ; and yet the data we have, 
in many cases, furnish the means of making estimates 
that approximate very nearly to accuracy. 

The countries of Northern Africa, including the Des- 
ert of Sahara, Nubia, Sennar, and Kordofan, which are 
subject to the Pacha of Egypt, are generally supposed to 
have about 20,000,000 of inhabitants. Murray has estimat- 
ed the countries lying upon the western coast of Africa, 
extending from the Desert of Sahara, in about 18 degrees 
north latitude, to the Southern tropic, at 20,000,000. Tak- 
ing the circular form of the coast, those countries comprise 
a territory of nearly 4,000 miles in length ; and estimating 
them as extending into the interior from 300 to 500 
miles, averaging 400 miles, they have an area of about 
1,500,000 miles. That estimate gives nearly 14 persons 
to the square mile, taking the whole surface of that vast 
area ; and it seems to me that it is as good a guess as 
can be made. The climate is too hot and unhealthy, the 
civilization of the people too low, and their industry too 
small, to admit a population much larger than the esti- 
mate. We have now the materials from which to make 
a summary of the number of inhabitants in Africa. 

Summary statement of the estimated population of the 
Continent of Africa and its islands : 

Northern Africa — including the Desert, 

Nubia, Sennar, and Kordofan 20,000,000 

Soudan and Central Africa 20,000,000 

Eastern Africa, from the northern boundary 
of Abyssinia to the southern tropic, and 
west to the 30th degree of longitude. . . . 20,000,000 

Western Africa, from the Sahara to the 

southern tropic 20,000,000 

Southern Africa, and the whole interior of 
the continent north, to the 8th degree of 
north latitude, less than 5,000,000 

Madagascar, Mauritius, Bourbon, Cape 

Verde, and other islands, over 5,000,000 

Total 90,000,000 



POPULATION OF AFRICA. 421 

The foreign slave trade has had a tendency to demoral- 
ize the Negro tribes and kingdoms of Africa, to mul- 
tiply wars, to increase the barbarism of the people and 
divert them from peaceful industry, to exhaust the male 
population, and to reduce the number of the inhabitants. 
With the Christian colonies now among them, and the 
many civilizing influences in operation, if the slave trade 
can be suppressed, there is reason to hope that the Afri- 
can 'people may be gradually raised in the scale of civil- 
ization, and their intelligence and industry increased ; 
which would lead to a steady increase of the population. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

OCEANICA, AND ITS INHABITANTS, AND THE MALAY 
PENINSULA. 

Sec. i. Preliminary Remarks. 

Oceanica is the name given by geographers to the 
islands lying in the Pacific Ocean — not contiguous nor 
near to the Continent of Asia or America — including in 
the designation the islands lying between India beyond 
the Ganges and Australia, on the borders of the Indian 
and Pacific Oceans, sometimes called the East Indian 
Archipelago. It includes also the islands of New Zea- 
land, which are British colonies. 

The most of the islands .are of volcanic origin, have 
chains of mountains running through them, with ridges 
and peaks elevated from 3,000 to 15,000 feet above the 
sea — having numerous extinct craters of volcanoes, and 
some that occasionally burst forth and emit large quan- 
tities of ashes and lava. The low islands are generally 
small, and of coral origin. 

Taking into consideration the climate of the islands, 
and their numerous harbors and facilities for commerce, 
as well as their productiveness and the great variety 
and value of their products, they are of vastly more 
value to the human family, than the whole Continent of 
Africa ; and they are capable of supporting a much 
larger population than Africa has ever yet had. 

Sec. 2. Climate and Natural Resources of the Oceanican 
Islands. 

All the islands of Oceanica of much importance, ex- 
cept New Zealand, lie in the torrid zone ; and with the 
exception of the mountain regions, they have a hot, 
tropical climate — modified and tempered by sea-breezes, 



OCEANICA, AND ITS INHABITANTS. 423 

and by cool winds from the mountains. As they have 
no winds coming long distances over arid plains, they 
never have any such hot, scorching, and withering winds, 
as they have in nearly all parts of Africa, and in South- 
western Asia. 

The most of the islands consist of masses of moun- 
tains, sloping gradually down to the sea, with narrow 
valleys between them, and often elevated table-lands on 
the tops of the ridges and at the base of the largest 
mountains, and the highest peaks. The declivity of the 
mountains is very generally so gradual that their sides 
are capable of being terraced ; and some are fit for occu- 
pation and for the cultivation of fruits and plants of 
various kinds, without terracing. A large portion of the 
area of the islands which is fit for the residence of man, 
and for cultivation of some kind, or for pasturage, is so 
elevated that the climate is mild and healthful ; and in 
many situations it is delightful. It is only in the low 
grounds along the coasts, in the rich alluvial valleys, 
at the mouths of rivers, and where there are stagnant 
waters, that the climate is unhealthy. 

Speaking of the East Indian Archipelago, Murray 
says, "As to soil and climate, the Indian Islands rank 
with the most favored regions on the globe. The vicinity 
of the sea, their varied surface, and the lofty mountains 
that traverse their interior, afford a copious supply of 
waters, zvhich, combined with the heat, produce the most 
hixuriant vegetation. They yield in abundance, not only 
all the ordinary products of tropical regions, but also 
peculiar and exquisite spices and fruits, which cannot be 
transplanted with advantage." 

" Agricultural operations (says Murray), in the most 
improved of these islands, are extremely simple. A 
team is estimated by Crawford to cost £2 18s. 6d. ; of 
which the plough is 2s., and the harrow is. ; its chief 
expense being the pair of buffaloes, which are worth 
£2 10s. Irrigation is the most costly process ; it is not 
effected by those extensive tanks which diffuse fertility 
over Hindostan, but by damming up the streams as they 
descend from the mountains, and distributing them over 
the fields ; and for this purpose the slopes of the hills ' 



424 OCEANICA, AND ITS INHABITANTS. 

are often formed into terraces. As the raising of rice 
by artificial irrigation does not depend upon the sea- 
sons, it is often seen, within the compass of a few acres, 
in every state of progress. . . . Maize, like oats 
and barley in Europe, is raised for the use of the lower 
ranks. The yam, though indigenous, is not much valued, 
the sweet potato being preferred. The grains of Europe 
and tlie common potato are produced only in small quan- 
tities. The cocoa-nut, the ground pistachio, the palma 
Christi, and sesamum are largely cultivated for the pro- 
duction of oil, a favorite food among the islanders. 

" The sago palm is a production peculiar to a portion 
of this region, growing chiefly under the most boister- 
ous influence of the eastern monsoon. The produce is 
prodigious, 500 or 600 lbs. being often drawn from a 
single tree ; and an acre may yield 8,000 lbs. annually. 
Spices, however, form the production of those islands 
most peculiar, and most valued by foreigners. These, 
with the coffee tree recently introduced from Arabia, oc- 
cupy in agriculture, the same place which the vine does 
in Europe ; being generally cultivated in the hilly dis- 
tricts of each country. Pepper grows plentifully i7i the 
western districts!' Among other products, cloves, nut- 
megs, sugar-cane, indigo, cardamon, gum-benzoin, and 
frankincense, are enumerated, as articles of importance. 

Forests (he says) of extraordinary luxuriance cover a 
large extent of the Indian Islands ; and their mineral 
wealth is brilliant and valuable. There are mines of 
gold, diamonds, tin, copper, iron, and sulphur. 

The islands having a moist and warm climate, the 
most of them are exceedingly productive ; and as the 
climate requires but little clothing and very little fuel, 
they are capable, with Chinese industry and frugality, 
and European science and skill, of furnishing the means 
of subsistence to a dense population ; quite as dense 
perhaps as the Islands of Mauritius and Bourbon — views 
of which have been heretofore presented. They com- 
pare favorably with the West India Islands ; and when 
the most of them shall come under the full influence of 
European civilization and law, they will furnish fields of 
employment for emigrants from China, Japan, and Hin* 



OCEANICA, AND ITS INHABITANTS. 425 

dostan, as well as from Europe, for centuries to come. 
Europe can furnish the intellect, the science, and the 
capital, and Asia the bone and the muscle to improve 
them. 



Sec. 3. Races of 'the Inhabitants — and their Characteris- 
tics, Capacities, and Advances in the Arts. 

Murray says, " The people of the Indian Archipelago 
are divided into two races, distinct in origin, language, 
aspect, and character, and irreconcilably hostile to each 
other ; the brown and the black races. They bear the 
same analogy that the white and the negro bear in 
the western regions — the former, superior in intelli- 
gence and power, driving the others before them, oppress- 
ing them, and reducing them to bondage. Thus, in all 
the great islands, the brown race has now established a 
decided and undisputed superiority. 

" The black race, called often the Papuas, or Oriental 
Negroes, appear to be a dwarf variety of the Negroes of 
Africa. They are of low stature and feeble frame. The 
color is sooty rather than black, the woolly hair grows 
in tufts, with a spiral twist. . . . This degraded 
class of human beings is generally diffused through New 
Guinea, New Holland, and other large islands of the 
Pacific. . . . Little is recorded except the ferocity 
with which they wage their ceaseless war with the brown 
races, who have driven them from all the finer parts of 
these regions. . . . 

" The brown ' tribes (the Malays) differ essentially in 
their appearance from any other in Southern Asia. They 
are short, squat, and robust, being reckoned on an aver- 
age four inches lower than the Europeans." 

Malte-Brun says, " The second great race of men be- 
longing to Oceanica, is that which we have denominated 
the Oceanian Negroes. They are sometimes called the 
Papuan race. . . . They have exclusive possession 
of some islands ; yet have nowhere risen above the most 
abject barbarism. When encountered by the fairer races, 
they have been hunted like wild animals, and incapable 
of retaining their ground, have retreated to the mountains 



426 OCEANICA, AND ITS INHABITANTS. 

and fastnesses. . . . The Oceanian Negroes seem 
doomed to perpetual misery, and incapable of rising from 
the very bottom of the scale of humanity. They have beeii 
fottnd, hitherto, incapable of acquiring the habits and feel- 
ings of civilized beings. This race is extended over New 
Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Caledonia, the New 
Hebrides, New Britain, and Solomon's Island, as well as 
New Guinea, where they go under the Malayan appella- 
tion of Papuas." 

McCulloch says, " The inhabitants are of two distinct 
races, differing widely in conformation ; one (the Malays) 
having a fair or brown complexion, while the other is 
black. The former inhabit chiefly the west, the latter the 
whole of the Archipelago, but become more prevalent 
as we go farther eastward. . . . The black or Papuan 
race, is a kind of dwarf African negro, spare and puny ; 
complexion sooty, nose and under lip projecting very 
much from the face. They are good tempered, brave, 
humane, hospitable, and neither bigoted nor perfidious, 
but very revengeful. . . . The faculties of their minds 
are generally feeble ; they are slow of comprehension, cred- 
ulous, and superstitious ; their judgments narrow, and 
their reason, memory, and imagination alike weak ; they 
are, however, good imitators t and have an aptitude for 
music. The more savage tribes go quite naked, with 
the exception of a small piece of cloth worn round the 
loins." 

" The Malays (says McCulloch) have been ranked by 
some authors as one of the five great families or varieties 
of the human race. But this opinion is by no means gen- 
erally entertained. Newbold says, ' Both their features, 
and those of the aborigines in the interior states around 
Malacca, are decidedly characterized by the Mongol 
stamp' (i., p. 422). 

" Independent (says McCulloch) of the Malays having 
no peculiarity of form or feature to entitle them to be 
called a distinct variety, there appears to be sufficient 
evidence to show that they are a mixed race, of compara- 
tively modern origin. Antecedent to the 12th century 
of our era, the coasts of the Malay Peninsula and the 
adjacent islands, were inhabited, though thinly, by a tribe 



OCEANICA, AND ITS INHABITANTS. 427 

of ichthyophagi, and the interior by a race of Negro sav- 
ages, by whose descendants it is still occupied. In the 
course of that century, a body of colonists, the ancestors 
of the present race of Malays, arrived on the continent from 
Sumatra ; and whether by intermarriage or by conquest, 
extended their dominion over the whole peninsula. Dur- 
ing the succeeding centuries, they conquered Sumatra, 
the Sunda, Philippine, and Molucca Isles, with many 
smaller groups ; and are now found in all those regions, 
and in Borneo ; but without any centre of unity or power. 

" The chief physical characteristics of the Malay race 
consist in a brown color, varying from a light tawny to a 
deep brown ; black hair, more or less curled and abun- 
dant ; the head rather narrow ; the bones of the face 
large and prominent ; the nose full, and broad toward 
theend ; and the mouth large. The average height of 
the men is about five feet and two inches. The Malays 
of the peninsula are active, restless, and courageous ; but 
their courage is not of a steady, deliberate character, 
but is rather a sudden ungovernable impulse, arising 
from a paroxysm of rage. ' To their enemies (says 
Hamilton) they are remorseless, to their friends capricious, 
and to strangers treacherous. . . . The universal 
practice of going armed, makes thoughts of murder famil- 
iar. The right of private revenge is universally admit- 
ted, even by the chiefs ; and the taking of life may be 
atoned for by a small sum of money.' 

" In the arts of peace (he says) they are greatly in- 
ferior to their neighbors of Java, Japan, Cochin-China, 
and Siam. The Malay language coincides with mono- 
syllabic tongues in its general construction and analo- 
gies, but is properly polysyllabic in its form. It consists 
chiefly of Polynesian, an intermixture of Sanscrit and 
Arabic, and a dialect purely Malayan, which last, how- 
ever, constitutes little more than one-fourth part of the 
written and spoken language. The literature of the 
Malays is almost entirely derived from Hindostan, Persia, 
Arabia, Java, and Siam. Arabic is exclusively their 
sacred language ; and their religion always has been de- 
rived from Arabia ; all the Malays, with trifling excep- 
tions, being Mahometans." 



428 OCEANICA, AND ITS INHABITANTS. 

The most of the above remarks of McCulloch, are 
taken from his article on the Malay Peninsula ; but they 
apply also to the Malays of the islands of the Indian 
Archipelago, and to all the Malays of Oceanica. 



Sec. 4. Origin and History of the Peoples of Oceanica, 
and of their Civilization. 

All the islands of Oceanica were inhabited by man, 
when first discovered by Europeans ; and the question 
arises — how did the first inhabitants come there? 1st. 
Was there a special creation of man on each island, or 
on many of the largest islands, from which the small 
islands were peopled ? Or, 2d. Have the inhabitants sprung 
from emigrants from the Continent of Asia, who went in 
boats, first from the continent to neighboring islands, 
and their descendants from one island to another, until 
all were peopled ? Or, 3d. Have the large islands and 
some of the small ones, been joined to the Continent of 
Asia, at some period of the world's history, and been 
severed since the creation of man by portions being 
buried in the sea, during some of the great convulsions 
and changes which this planet has evidently undergone, 
in past ages ? Or, how otherwise, can the first inhabit- 
ants of Australia and the islands of Oceanica be ac- 
counted for ? 

These are great and grave questions, for the naturalist 
and the theologian, as well as the geographer and philoso- 
pher to solve ; and it is very difficult to solve them. I 
apprehend that very few well-informed persons would 
answer the first question in the affirmative ; none per- 
haps but those so wedded to the theory of five or more 
distinct races of men, having constitutions so entirely 
different as to form distinct genuses, so that it would be 
difficult to conceive that they could have arisen from the 
same type or source. But in this case, no precise divid- 
ing line can be drawn between the Malays and the 
Mongols of the continent and of Japan ; nor between 
the Oriental Negro and the Hottentot, and the Negro of 
Africa and the Island of Madagascar. Hence the first 
question may be dismissed without much consideration. 



OCEANICA, AND ITS INHABITANTS. 429 

The second question demands more consideration. 
Considering- the restless and adventurous character of 
many of the human family, and the facility of going, even 
in row-boats, hundreds of miles on the ocean, in calm 
weather, it seems neither impossible nor improbable, 
that such migrations by water did take place, before the 
era of written languages and recorded history ; and at 
periods too far in the past, to leave any traditions of the 
events. 

So far as the Malays are concerned, this theory is par- 
tially, at least, sustained by dim traditions. The Ma- 
lays of the Malay Peninsula have a tradition that their 
ancestors came from the island of Sumatra. The Ma- 
lays of Borneo and other islands have a similar tradition, 
that their ancestors also came from Sumatra. These 
traditions are not only probably correct, but the earliest 
and most reliable information we have, looking towards 
the origin of those peoples. But how did their ancestors 
come upon the island of Sumatra ? Here we have not 
even tradition to inform or guide us. The only answer 
is, if the descendants of the natives of Sumatra could 
migrate to the Continent, to Java, to Borneo, and to a 
thousand other islands, their ancestors could have mi- 
grated from the Continent to Sumatra. Hence the 
argument seems as complete as it is possible to make 
any reasoning upon the subject, that the ancestors of 
the natives of Australia and all these islands, must have 
come from the Continent of Asia. 

The origin of those peoples, suggested in the third 
question, seems not impossible, and yet it appears very 
improbable. Speaking of the islands of Oceanica, Malte- 
Brun says, " We might be tempted to suppose that they 
belonged to an ancient continent now buried in the sea, 
leaving these islands alone above the surface. But this 
hypothesis, which has been hazarded by an estimable 
scholar, only explains one difficulty by giving birth to 
many new ones. Why should not this ancient people 
(the Malays), in dispersing itself from east to west, have 
spread itself over the vast continent of New Holland, 
where we find forty tribes belonging to the race of Negroes ? " 

Again, he says, " The large islands of Luzon, Celebes, 



430 OCEANICA, AND ITS INHABITANTS. 

Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, are inhabited by natives who 
speak languages bearing more or less affinity to the Malays, 
thus showing a common origin ; yet some of them, such 
as the Tagal and Bisay languages of the Philippines, the 
Balian, of the Island of Bali, and that of the Baltas, of 
Sumatra, differ so essentially from one another, that their 
national separation must have been of very ancie7it date? 

We may therefore safely take it for granted, that the 
ancestors of the natives of all those islands, came from 
the continent of Asia ; that they left the continent at 
different periods, and in successive migrations ; that the 
ancestors of the Oriental Negroes, of the natives of Aus- 
tralia, and of all the lowest tribes in Sumatra, Java, and 
Borneo, and other islands, migrated at the earliest period, 
when the inhabitants of eastern and south-eastern Asia 
were in a barbarous conditio n,before the invention of 
written languages, or any of the useful arts ; that the an- 
cestors of the Malays, Javanese, and all the more ad- 
vanced peoples of those islands, migrated at later periods, 
when written languages and many of the useful arts 
were in use in Hindostan, China, and other eastern 
countries ; that they took with them the arts and learn- 
ing, laws and institutions of the countries from which 
they emigrated ; and that no invention and none of the 
arts and elements of civilization in use in those tropical 
islands, originated there. 

I It should be borne in mind, however, that Australia 
and all the islands of Oceanica have more or less animals, 
birds and quadrupeds, creeping things and insects, as 
well as amphibious animals. Java has the rhinoceros, 
elephants, tigers, wild boars, horses, cows, cattle, buf- 
faloes, sheep, and numerous others. Sumatra has the 
most of the same animals. Borneo has no tigers, and 
no native elephants ; but has buffaloes, goats, great num- 
bers of wild hogs, and many other animals. It is a re- 
markable fact, that the kangaroo is the largest quadru- 
ped found in Australia, or in any of the islands of the 
Pacific, remote from the continent of Asia. 

The domestic animals may have been transported to 
those islands by emigrants, or by the Malays trading 
with the people ; but it is more difficult to account for 



OCEANICA, AND ITS INHABITANTS. 43 1 

the wild and ferocious animals upon them, than it is for 
the existence of man. That subject involves problems 
and questions too deep for man to solve. 

History. — " Considerable revolutions (says Murray) 
seem to have taken place about the twelfth century, in 
the principal of these islands. Hindoo colonies had by 
this time introduced into Java the religion and literature 
of Boodh, mixed with that of Brama, and several power- 
ful empires, ruled by Hindoo sovereigns, were, during 
that and the following centuries, established in different 
parts of the island. . . About the twelfth century, 
also, the Malays, making an extensive emigration from 
the plain of Menangkabao, in the interior of Sumatra, 
spread themselves over Malacca, Singapore, and Borneo, 
and rendered themselves, what they have ever since been, the 
most completions people in the Archipelago!' 

" The conversion to the Mahometan faith of Sumatra 
and Java, the most important and improved of the India 
islands, made an important change in their political con- 
dition. It appears to have taken place in Sumatra, 
about the beginning of the fourteenth century ; but in 
Java, not till about 150 years later. This conversion was 
effected, not by priests or warriors, but by merchants 
from Arabia, who had been attracted to these islands by 
the commerce in spices. Having settled there in con- 
siderable numbers, they at length began to propagate 
their faith, first by persuasion ; but when a number of conv 
verts had once been made, they spread it, as is usual with 
the votaries of this faith, by persecution and the sword. 
These mercantile apostles became Chieftains and Prin- 
ces, and after a series of bloody struggles, established in 
both islands a number of petty kingdoms, in all of which 
they either ruled or held a considerable influence." 

The Portuguese made their appearance among the 
East Indian Islands early in the sixteenth century, con- 
quered and colonized a portion of the Malay Peninsula, 
visited many of the islands, and commenced trading with 
the natives, and penetrated as far as the Moluccas. The 
Spaniards soon followed, and established factories and 
trading-posts on the Philippines, and finally acquired the 
sovereignty of those islands. 



432 OCEANIC A, AND ITS INHABITANTS. 

The Dutch visited Java in 1596, and in 16 10, with the 
permission of the natives, built a fort and a factory where 
the city of Batavia now stands. They had the Portu- 
guese and Spaniards to contend with, but finally estab- 
lished their maritime supremacy over them. They 
eventually became involved in war with the natives, and 
obtained, by conquest and treaty in 1677, a considerable 
territory on the Island of Java. 

The English soon made their appearance, and made 
strong efforts to obtain settlements in those islands, and 
a share in the spice trade. There was great -rivalship 
between these four European nations for the trade of the 
Indian Islands, during the most of the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries. Missionaries soon accompanied 
all the European settlements ; the Portuguese and Span- 
ish introducing Catholic, and the Dutch and English 
Protestant Christianity. 

Upon the introduction of Mahometanism in the four- 
teenth and fifteenth centuries, paganism and Boodhism, 
Brahminism and Mahometanism, were more or less 
mixed ; and their peculiar tenets and dogmas in some in- 
stances were actually blended together — forming a modi- 
fied Mahometanism. When Catholic and Protestant 
Christianity were introduced, the elements of the mixture 
were multiplied ; all of which, with the manners and 
customs of the Europeans., and the laws introduced by 
them, have had their influence upon the opinions, and 
upon the character and habits of the natives. 

From such facts, traditions, and fragments of history, 
the reader may learn how the natives of the East Indian 
islands attained their present mixed and half civilized 
condition ; how their languages were formed ; how their 
arts and methods of industry, their religion and learning, 
were acquired ; and how their manners and customs, 
laws and institutions, were moulded into their present 
form. The conclusion is inevitable, that the natives of 
those islands obtained from other countries all the ele- 
ments and arts of civilization which they have, and that 
they originated nothing. Like the natives of every 
other tropical region, they have borrowed everything of 
value, and invented nothing. 



THE MALAY PENINSULA. 433 

Sec. 5. The Malay Peninsula. 

The north part of the Malay Peninsula belongs to 
Siam and the British, and a small strip of country on the 
south-west coast, on the Straits of Malacca, also belongs 
to the British (as heretofore stated). The part which 
belongs to the Malays is about 600 miles long, has an 
average breadth of over 100 miles, and an area of about 
60,000 square miles — being larger than the States of 
New York and New Jersey, or England and Wales. It 
is divided into no less than eleven independent states 
and kingdoms, having an aggregate population, as esti- 
mated by Lieut. Newbold, and stated by Mr. McCulloch, 
of only 289,000 ; and we have no evidence that the popu- 
lation has increased since he wrote (in 1839). 

The whole length of the Peninsula is traversed by a 
central range of mountains, elevated from 3,000 to 6,000 
feet above the sea ; between which and the coast on 
either side the surface is undulating— having elevated 
valleys, hills, and table-lands near the mountains — the 
country becoming gradually lower as the coast is ap- 
proached. The most of the peninsula consists of dense 
forests, covered with large quantities of valuable wood 
and timber. 

The climate is very moist, and the rains frequent at 
all seasons of the year, which renders the country ex- 
ceedingly productive — two, and often three crops can be 
raised annually, and generally without irrigation. The 
coasts and low country have a hot climate ; but in eleva- 
ted situations the heat is moderated by the mountain air ; 
and the country is as healthy as most countries within 
the tropics. 

The character of the people has been heretofore given. 
They have, very generally, a strong propensity for gam- 
bling and low amusements ; which is very common in hot 
climates. In productive industry and the arts, they are 
greatly below the Malays of Sumatra, Borne.o, and other 
islands, and vastly inferior to the Javanese. 

The mines of tin are numerous, extensive, and very valu- 
able — yielding about 2,400 tons of tin annually. The 
gold mines yield about 20,000 ounces annually ; and iron 

19 



434 THE ISLAND OF SUMATRA. 

ores are found in all parts of the country. With all these 
natural resources, the population is estimated at only 
about five inhabitants to the square mile. What is the 
reason of the number being so very small ? Only two 
reasons occur to my mind. 

ist. The prevalence of the Mahometan religion, and 
the low grade of civilization which it produces — not be- 
ing consistent with much industry or enterprise ; and 

2d. The division of the country into so many inde- 
pendent petty states and kingdoms, without any bond 
of union between them, or common umpire to decide 
and settle their difficulties — which renders it impossible 
to preserve peace and tranquillity, and involves the coun- 
try in frequent and almost incessant wars. The New 
American Cyclopcedia says, " At present, the Peninsula is 
much less populous than in former ages. Its foreign and 
intestine wars, and the incursions of pirates, have contri- 
buted to its depopulation. The British territory of Malac- 
ca, which embraces only about an 8oth part of the area of 
the peninsula, has as many inhabitants as all the rest of 
the country." 

What a picture is here presented ! An old country, 
of large natural resources, capable of supporting a dense 
population — perhaps 200 or more to the square mile, 
having only five. 

Sec. 6. The Island of Sumatra. 

Sumatra is about 1,000 miles long, and if the Ameri- 
can maps are correct in relation to its width, it is from 
ioo to nearly 250 miles wide, and has an area of at 
least 150,000 square miles. McCulloch says the area 
has been variously estimated at from 122,000 to 128,000 
square miles ; but since that time it has been stated in 
the London Cyclopcedia of Geography, and in the New 
American Cyclopcedia, at 160,000 square miles. 

A chain of high mountains runs the whole length of 
the island, the ranges being generally double, and some- 
times treble, and running the nearest to the western 
coast. Between the ranges there are extensive plains 
of considerable elevation above the lands along the 
coast, and at the mouths of rivers. On the elevated 



THE ISLAND OF SUMATRA. 435 

table-lands and plains, and the valleys in the mountains, 
the heat is moderated, and the climate more temperate 
than in the low country. The elevated districts are es- 
teemed the most eligible portions of the island, and are 
the best settled. 

The inhabitants have been classified by some writers 
as belonging to five nations. The Atchinese occupying 
the north part ; the Battas the interior and west coast, 
south of the Atchinese ; the Sumatrans on the west 
coast, south of the Battas ; the Lampongs the southern 
part of the island ; and the Malays the great central 
plain or table-land of Menangkabowe ; which they claim 
was the original seat of their ancestors. 

The island was formerly divided among a number of 
independent states, kingdoms, and tribes ; some of which 
still maintain their independence ; but several of them 
are now subject to the Dutch, who in 1649 established a 
factory and a settlement at Padang, on the west coast, and 
soon afterwards in the kingdom of Palembang, in the 
south-east part of the island. The English East India 
Company established a factory at Bencoolen, on the west 
coast, in 1685, and built a fort in 17 14. 

Those Dutch factories and trading posts, under the 
protection and government of the Dutch Colony at Ba- 
tavia, in the island of Java, became the central points of 
influence and power, and the entering wedges, which en- 
abled them to obtain from the natives, partly by purchase, 
and partly by conquest, a large district of country on the 
west coast, of which Padang is the capital — to conquer 
and subject to their dominion, the kingdom of Palem- 
bang, in 1 82 1, also the kingdom of Indragiri, lying on the 
east coast north of Palembang, and at subsequent periods, 
the tribes known as Lampongs, who occupy the south 
end of the island. In 1824 they acquired Bencoolen of 
the English, by treaty. 

Those several acquisitions gave the Dutch the domin- 
ion of all the southern part of Sumatra, comprising 
nearly half of the whole island ; and the time is not far 
distant when they will probably control the whole island. 
They have established four governments ; 1st, Sumatra 
(capital Padang), on the west coast ; 2d, Bencoolen, on 



436 THE ISLAND OF SUMATRA. 

the same coast, south of the former ; 3d, Lampong, oc- 
cupying the south part of the island ; and 4th, Palem- 
bang, on the east coast. 

The London Cyclopaedia of Geography says, " Every 
village or town has its chief, who acknowledges only 
nominally one of the Princes or Sultans, of which there 
are several in the island ; but he acts independently, and 
makes war on his neighbors as often as he pleases. The 
influence which has been exercised by European settlers and 
governments, has tended to diminish petty wars, a7id pro- 
mote peace among the natives." The greatest of all ob- 
stacles to the increase of the American Indians, and of 
savage tribes and barbarous nations in other countries, is 
the disturbance of industry, and the destruction of hu- 
man life and of property, by war. The Dutch having 
introduced law and order, new methods of industry, and 
many elements of civilization into Sumatra, which have 
tended to promote peace and industry among the natives, 
there can be no doubt that the natives have increased 
considerably in numbers during the last fifty years, under 
their own governments, as well as under the govern- 
ments established over a portion of them by the Dutch. 
The population was estimated by Crawford, the his- 
torian of the Archipelago, at 2,500,000, and Murray 
adopted his estimate. McCulloch said (1839) tne popu- 
lation was wholly unknown, but had been estimated at 
about 2,000,000. Since Crawford, Murray, and McCul- 
loch wrote, the population of the island, and particularly 
the Dutch part of it, has largely increased, and been ascer- 
tained by taking a census, at several different periods. 
Statement of the population of the several Dutch Prov- 
inces or Governments in Sumatra, November, 1849, 
December 31st 1859, December 31st, 1862, and De- 
cember 31st, 1864, as reported officially : 

Years. 1849. 1859. 1862. 1864. 

S ™f' (west I 938,535 1,056,000 1,058,491 1,107,703 



coast) 

Bencoolen. . . . 93,875 114,460 116,229 120,514 

Lampong 82,900 85,525 90,836 93,019 

Palembang.... 322,000 478,363 511,453 527,050 

Total i,437>36o 1,734,348 1,777,009 1,848,286 



JAVA AND MADURA. 437 

A regular increase of the population is here shown, 
from one period to another — amounting to nearly 41 1,- 
000, or over 28 per cent, in 15 years, from 1849 to 1864. 
To produce such an increase in the population, there 
must have been a great improvement in the intelligence 
and the morals, as well as in the habits and industry of 
the people. Sumatra is sparsely settled compared with 
Java, and there will be room for constant increase for a 
century to come. 

Sec. 7. yava and Madura. 

Java is over 600 miles in length, and has an area of 
over 50,000 square miles. The small island of Madura, 
lying contiguous to its north-east coast, and separated 
from it by a narrow channel, is so intimately connected 
with Java, that its population, commerce, and area are 
always reckoned with those of Java — both being under 
the same government. The area of Madura has been 
stated at 1,260 square miles, and the population in 1850, 
at 316,370 — making the area of Java and Madura nearly 
52,400 square miles. It is larger than Cuba, and a very 
little larger than England, exclusive of Wales. 

McCulloch says, " The west part of the surface is 
mountainous. A mountain chain, obviously of volcanic 
origin, runs from west to east entirely through the centre 
of the island, its peaks varying in elevation from 5,000 to 
probably 1 2,000 feet. . . On the north coast the cli- 
mate is hot, and unfavorable to Europeans ; but in the 
interior, at an elevation of 4,000 feet, where the temper- 
ature ranges from 50 to 60 degs. Fahr., no deleterious 
influence is to be apprehended from the atmosphere. 
Thunder-storms and earthquakes are frequent, but hur- 
ricanes are unknown. 

"Java has a most luxuriant vegetation. It is distin- 
guished by the number and excellence of its fruits, and 
other vegetable products, which comprise many of the 
most valuable common to tropical climates. Dense 
foi'ests of teak and other trees, tiseful for ship-building, 
cover a great part of the interior, especially towards the 
east end of the island." 



438 JAVA AND MADURA. 

As to the Industry of the People, he says : " The 
Javanese are a nation of husbandmen. . . At pres- 
ent (1839), on ly about one-third part of the surface is 
supposed to be under culture ; and yet Java not only 
produces enough of corn for its own consumption, but is 
the granary of the Eastern Archipelago, and even of 
Singapore. 

" The implements of agriculture are few and simple, 
but they, as well as the agricultural processes, are more 
perfect, and imply a greater degree of intelligence than 
those of the Hindoos, and perhaps, indeed, than those of 
any Asiatic people, the Chinese excepted. The Java- 
nese plough, like the Hindoo, has no share, but the point 
is tipped with a few ounces of iron. 

"Cattle of every description are plenty throughout 
Java ; but the cows are inferior, and yield but little milk. 
Sheep, goats, and hogs are numerous. 

" Rice is the principal food of all classes ; it is grown 
not only on the sea-coast, but on all the low grounds and 
ravines, where water can be had. The greater quantity 
of the grain of Java is raised by the help of artificial 
irrigation. The principal care of* the husbandman is, to 
dam the brooks and mountain streams as they descend 
from the hills, and before the difficulty has occurred 
which would be presented by their passing through deep 
ravines. From this circumstance, the ci'ests of the moun- 
tains, and the valleys at their feet, are best supplied with 
water, and there consequently is the finest and richest hus- 
bandry. The slopes of tJie mountains are formed into 
terraces, and highly cultivated. Mr. Crawford says he 
has seen lands which have produced, time immemorially, 
two crops of rice annually. 

" Coffee (he says), which has now become the great 
commercial staple of Java, is grown in the uplands, the 
best situations for it being the valleys from 3,000 to 
4,000 feet above the level of the sea. The coffee-plant 
grows from 12 to 16 feet in height, attains its maturity in 
about five years, and continues to bear well for ten or 
twelve years ; each tree yielding about \\ lb. of coffee. 

"Sugar is also an important staple," the export of 
which he stated to be about 48,000 tons in 1837 ; and the 
exports of coffee were still larger. 



JAVA AND MADURA. 



439 



" Manufactures (he says) are few, and principally do- 
mestic ; the peasant's family fabricates almost every arti- 
cle required for its own use. , Cottons are woven, and a 
cubit's length of cloth is a day's work for a weaver. . . 
Leather and saddlery are made at Solo, boots and shoes 
at Samarang, mats, and hats of bamboo, fishing-nets, pa- 
per from the bark of the Morus papyrifera, bricks, cabi- 
net-work, carved wooden articles, boats and ships, match- 
locks and other arms, are, exclusive of cottons, the chief 
manufactures. . . Unskilful as the manufacturing 
industry of the Japanese is, it generally excels that of 
the other islanders of the Archipelago." 

Murray says, " This island surpasses all the others in 
fertility, population, and general improvement. It does 
not, indeed, excel in the finer spices, and even in pepper 
is inferior to Sumatra. But it is fruitful in the staples of 
tropical produce, rice, sugar, coffee, and has extensive 
forests of teak. . . The south-western side of the 
island is in general more level (than the north-eastern), 
and capable of very general cultivation. It is almost 
entirely subject to European influence, and new modes 
and objects of culture have, under European auspices, been 
introduced. The eastern part is mountainous, wooded, 
and romantic, yet diversified with rich and beautiful 
valleys, carefully cultivated upon the native system." 

Statement of the exports of Java and Madura during 
the under-mentioned years : 





1830. 


1833. 


1837- 


Coffee, piculs* 


. . .288,740 . 


. . . 260,166 . 


. . . 684,947 


Pepper, " 


. . . 5,061 . 


. . . 5,407 . 


. .. 12,487 


Indigo, lbs. 


. . . 22,063 • 


... 217,480 . 


. . . 822,492 


Hides, number 


. . . 30,249 . 


... 75,421 . 


. . . 93,071 


Cloves, piculs 


803 . 


1,942 . 


. . . 2,929 


Nutmegs, " 


. . . 1,304 . 


1,171 . 


• • • 3.77^ 


Sugar, " 


. . . 108,640 . 


. . . 210,947 


. . . 676,085 


Tin, 


. . . 21,426 . 


. . . 44,304 ■ 


• •• 44,417 


Rice, coyans f 


... 13,521 . 


• • • 30,344 • 


• • • 36,430 


Rattans, piculs 


. . . 5,090 . 


... 16,731 . 


.*• 33,539 



* A picul is 133 \ lbs. — 15 piculs make a ton of 2,000 lbs. 
t A coyau is 30 piculs, or 2 tons. 



440 JAVA AND MADURA. 





1830. 


1833. 


1837. 


Mace, piculs 


177... 


603 ... 


• 1,213 


Arrack, leaguers . . . 


. 1,927 . . . 


1,644 • • • 


. 1,663 



The exports of 1836, being a little less in quantity, 
were valued at 42,261,642 florins ; equal to $17,- 
904,000. 

Commerce of Java and Madura in i860 : 

Imports of Merchandise. . . .49,849,418 florins. 

Imports of Coin 19,491,594 " 

Exports of Merchandise... .94,664,472 " 

Exports of Coin 9,792,007 " 

Statement of the quantity and value of the principal 
articles exported in i860: 





Quantities. 


Value. 


Sugar, piculs . . . 


. 2,081,000 . 


. . 31,982,000 florins. 


Coffee, " ... 


900,000 . 


. , 29,826,000 " 


Tin, " ... 


31,000 . 


.. 7,515,000 


Rice, " 


. 1,21 1,000 . 


. . 6,614,000 " 


Indigo, lbs. . . . 


917,000 . . 


.. 3,451,000 


Caoutchouc,pict 


Is 20,000 . . 


. . 1,836,000 " 


Tobacco, " 


99,000 . . 


.. 1,519,000 " 


Salt, 


255,000 . 


.. 1,021,000 " 


Hides, number. 


204,000 . 


617,000 " 



The foregoing tables show a very great increase in 
the exports of the island, during the period of 30 years, 
from 1830 to i860; and indicate a corresponding in- 
crease in the industry of the people, and in the products 
of the country. 

The City of Batavia and the Dutch possessions in Java 
were taken by the British in 181 1, and restored to the 
Dutch in 18 16. Since that time the Dutch have ob- 
tained the substantial sovereignty of the whole island, 
and pretty thoroughly Dutched it — that is, they have 
imbued the native inhabitants with the habits of indus- 
try, economy, and thrift, so common among the Hol- 
landers. The territories of the native princes are said 



JAVA AND MADURA. 44 1 

to comprise about one-fourth part of the island, being the 
south and south-east parts of it ; but they are under the 
protection of the Dutch, and must conform to their policy. 

By a decree of the Dutch government, slavery was 
abolished in 1859. 

The Government is administered by a Governor- 
General, appointed by the King of Holland, who is com- 
mander-in-chief of the army and navy. He is assisted 
by a Secretary-General, and a Colonial Council of four 
members, who must be of Dutch extraction, born in 
Holland or one of its dependencies, and 30 years of age. 
The only popular element in the government consists in 
its village and town republics, which are bodies politic, 
with considerable powers of local administration and 
self-government. They elect their own officers, and are 
charged with the levy and collection of the taxes, and 
the maintenance of public order. The greatest religious 
toleration exists ; superior schools are established in the 
chief towns, and primary schools in most of the resi- 
dences. 

Population. — Barrow estimated the population of the 
island nearly a century since, at 2,000,000. Murray 
says : " Java has been found to contain about 6,000,000." 
He wrote in 1830. McCulloch estimated the popula- 
tion at between five and six millions. 

The New American Cyclopaedia says, the Dutch had four 
great wars with the natives of Java, between the years 
1677 and 1830 ; that the first lasted 34 years ; the second 
5 years, from 1718 to 1723 ; the third 15 years, from 1740 
to 1755 ; and the fourth 5 years, from 1825 to 1830. 
By these wars the Dutch obtained by conquest from time 
to time, about three-fourths of the island ; and substan- 
tially subjected to their dominion all the native princes. 
The island was formerly divided into several independent 
states, ruled by Mahometan princes, which were fre- 
quently at war with each other. Their wars with each 
other and with the Dutch, prevented much increase of the 
people, until the Dutch finally subdued the native prin- 
ces, acquired the dominion of the island, and gave peace, 
tranquillity, and security to the inhabitants. Since that 
time, the inhabitants have increased rapidly. 



442 DUTCH POSSESSIONS IN EAST INDIA ISLANDS. 

The population probably commenced increasing after 
the peace made with the Dutch in 1755, and may have 
been about 3,000,000 at that time, and over 6,000,000 in 
1830. 

Statement of the population of Java and Madura as 
reported officially : 

November, 1849 9,560,380 

December 31st, 1864 13,917,368 

Increase in 15 years 4,356,988 

equal to more than 45 per cent. Such an increase has 
rarely been known in any part of the world. The in- 
habitants, mostly aborigines, have increased with the in- 
crease of industry, products, and exports of the island, 
and the increased means of subsistence. Verily, the 
Anglo-Saxons and Anglo-Americans are not the only 
people in the world that are making rapid progress in in- 
dustry and commerce, numbers and power. There must 
be life and activity, great energy of character, and many 
elements of progress, still existing among the Dutch, 
else they could not have accomplished such results. 



Sec. 8. Population of the Dutch possessions {71 the East 
Indian Islands, at different periods. 

The following is a summary statement of the number 
of inhabitants in the Duch possessions of the East In- 
dian Islands, November, 1849, December 31st, 1859, an d 
December 31st, 1864, as reported officially, and stated in 
the Almanacs de Gotha. 

1849. 1859. 1864. 
Java and Madura . . 9,560,380 12,324,095 13,917,368 
Settlements in Su- 
matra 1,437,360 1,734,348 1,848,286 

Rhio 30,000 24,682 30,683 

Banca 43>ooo 50,683 54,339 

Billiton 12,906 15,824 

Carried forward .. . 11,070,740 14,146,714 15,866,500 



DUTCH POSSESSIONS IN EAST INDIA ISLANDS. 443 

1849. 1859. • 1864. 

Brought forward. '. . 11,970,740 14,146,714 15,866,500 

Borneo, west side. 311,100, 319,650 354,329 
Borneo, south and 

east ? . . . . 350,895 553.343* 610,679 

Celebes 1,569,000 208,973 298,222 

Menado 183,000 174,337 180,418 

Ternate 97,329 95,184 92,291 

Amboyne 277,508 188,573 167,273 

Banda 155.7^5 109,924 111,586 

Timor. 1,057,800 1,646,476 907,184 

Bali and Lombok. . 1,105,000 321,170 863,725 

New Guinea 200,000 



16,378,137 17,764,344 19,452,207 

These figures show very clearly that the official reports 
are mere estimates, and not the results of accurate enu- 
merations ; and yet time and observation, the collection 
of taxes, and the disposition of public lands, enable pub- 
lic officers to correct errors, so that the last estimates 
may be regarded as good approximations to accuracy. 
That the population of all those Dutch possessions has 
increased rapidly during the last twenty years, is beyond 
all doubt ; and that they never increased much under their 
own system of government — under tJieir native princes 
and chiefs, is equally certain. 

The Almanach de Gotha for 1867, says : " In 1864 the 
number of Europeans settled in the Dutch East Indies 
numbered 33,677 ; of whom 27,933 were born in the 
colonies, 4,478 in the Netherlands, and 1,266 in other 
countries of Europe. The number of Europeans living 
in Java and Madura were estimated at 27,105. The 
Europeans belonging to the army, 1 1,747, an d their 
children (891) are not comprised in those numbers. In 
1864 the Chinese numbered 235,535, of which 156,192 
were inhabitants of Java. The Hindoos, not born in 
the colonies, numbered 41,989. The rest of the popu- 
lation consisted of 19,141,000 aborigines. 

In 1859, the Chinese in those Dutch colonies num- 

* December 31st, 1857. 



444 RHIO, BANCA, AND BILLITON. 

bered 216,238, of whom 145,162 were in Java. The re- 
ports show an increase of Chinese in Java, during five 
years, from 1859 to 1864, of 11,030, and in the other 
Dutch colonies of 8,267. The Chinese and Hindoos 
that emigrate, belong to the poor laboring classes. 
They leave their native country in search of employment 
and the means of subsistence. They have neither taste 
nor talent to clear up and improve the forest, but seek 
employment in mines, or in agricultural and mechanical 
employments, in cultivated countries. Hence they go in 
large numbers to the densely peopled island of Java, be- 
cause there is capital, and industry, and a demand for 
laborers — in preference to going to the rich islands of 
Borneo, New Guinea, Celebes, and others, which are 
covered with forests, peopled only by a few savages, and 
offer boundless fields of enterprise to such a people as 
the Anglo-Americans, who are accustomed to clearing 
and improving new lands. The Chinese and the Hin- 
doos that emigrate, generally cluster around the Dutch, 
the English, and the Anglo-Americans, who have capital 
and capacity to give them employment, make their labor 
productive, and furnish them the means of subsistence. 
China and Hindostan will furnish the bone and 
muscle, and Holland the capital and intellect, to colonize 
and improve nearly all the islands of the Indian Archi- 
pelago ; and the indications now are, that the Dutch and 
the British will eventually control and colonize, improve 
and Christianize, all the islands of Oceanica of much 
value, except the Philippines — which belong to Spain. 

Sec. 9. Rhio, Banca, and Bilbeton. 

Rhio, Banca, and Bilbeton, are small islands lying be- 
tween Sumatra and Borneo. The area of Rhio has been 
estimated at about 3,150 * square miles; Banca at 
7,500 square miles ; and Billiton at 1,950 square miles. 
They belong to the Dutch, and their population was 
stated in the last section. 

Banca has long been famous for its tin. In 1856 its 
mines yielded 5,750 tons of tin, which was worth 4,570-, 

* Per Almanach de Gotha for 1853. 



THE ISLAND OF BORNEO. 445 

ooo florins. It produces more tin than the mines of 
Cornwall. The mines are worked by Chinese laborers, 
who compose about half the population of the island. 
The tin mines are very valuable, and the island is a 
valuable possession. 

Billiton is famous for its mines of iron and tin ; but the 
mining of tin did not commence until 1850, by a Dutch 
company. As in Banca, Chinese laborers and colonists 
work the mines. 

The Chinese that emigrate are faithful and efficient 
laborers, but never having exercised any political power, 
they seem deficient in organizing talent, and unable to 
organize society or governments for themselves, or com- 
panies to carry on new enterprises, or make public im- 
provements. They are valuable to the Dutch as laborers, 
a?id the Dutch are eqzcally valuable to them as employers. 

Sec. 10. The Island of Borneo. 

Borneo is the largest island in the world, being over 
750 miles in length, with an average breadth of about 
350 miles. McCulloch estimates the area at 260,000 
square miles, and the population at between three and 
four millions. It is nearly six times as large as Cuba, 
and more than twice as large as Great Britain and Ire- 
land. 

Very little is known of the interior of this island. 
McCulloch says, there are numerous and extensive plains, 
especially in the north part ; and upwards of 100 rivers, 
many being navigable, and some of considerable size. 
The climate of the north part is similar to that of Cey- 
lon, but not subject to the hot land-winds that prevail on 
the coast of Coromandel. The west coast has no rainy 
season in particular, but is refreshed by showers all the 
year round. 

Borneo (he says) is very fertile ; but, except in Borneo 
proper, the grain produced is not sufficient for home 
consumption. 

Inhabitants. — The interior and part of the N. W. 
coast are said by McCulloch to be peopled by Dyaks, a 
savage race, believed to be the aborigmcs. They are also 



446 THE ISLAND OF BORNEO. 

scattered all over the island, in small tribes. The West 
coast is peopled by Malays, Chinese, and Dutch colonists ; 
the north-west by half-caste descendants of the Moors of 
West Hindostan ; the north by Anamese (Cochin-Chi- 
nese) ; north-east by Suluks ; east and south coasts by 
Bugis, of Celebes. Besides these, the Lauuns and two 
other tribes live in small craft, in a wandering manner, 
about the shores. The Lauuns are a piratical people. 

Upon the banks of large rivers (says McCulloch) 
many tribes often tinite together, under the rule of one 
stronger than the rest : btit in the forest they keep separate, 
and speak dialects so different as to be often unintelligible 
to each other. The more civilized have adopted Ma- 
hometanism. 

The savage character and the miserable condition of 
the aborigines of the island, may be inferred from such 
statements as the foregoing. Borneo is more than five 
times as large as Java, and, so far as we know, it is 
equally fertile, and capable of supporting a population of 
forty or fifty millions, and perhaps more, if improved to 
the utmost extent by a Chinese population, under the 
government and direction of the Dutch. The popula- 
tion probably does not exceed 2,500,000, as estimated in 
the New American Cyclopaedia, which divides them nearly 
as follows : 

Malays, the ruling race, about \ 600,000 

Savage Dyaks, about f 1,600,000 

Chinese and Cochin-Chinese 250,000 

Bugis, from Celebes 50,000 



The Dutch visited Borneo and commenced trading 
with the natives more than 200 years ago. They estab- 
lished factories and trading-posts, took possession of two 
important stations upon the western coast, built forts, 
and finally acquired a large cession of territory from one 
of the native chiefs or princes, nearly a century since. 
Partly by occupancy and conquest, and partly by cession, 
they now claim the sovereignty of the most of the west- 
ern and southern coasts of the island, and jurisdiction 
over nearly a million of inhabitants, as stated in section 8. 



THE ISLAND OF CELEBES. 447 

Sec. 1 1. The Island of Celebes and its Inhabitants. 

Celebes consists of a small central mainland, from 
which four great peninsulas branch off; to the north- 
east, east, south-east, and south, separated by three large 
bays. McCulloch estimates the area at 75,000 square 
miles, and the population at between two and three mil- 
lions. The New Amer. Cyc. estimates the area at 68 r 
500 square miles, and the population at 1,500,000. Con- 
sidering the small imports and exports of the island, and 
the industry, condition and character of the inhabitants, 
it does not seem probable that they number more than 
1,500,000 or 2,000,000 at the most. 

The New Amer. Cyc. says : " Elevated mountain chains 
extend throughout the whole length of each peninsula 
of Celebes ; but the N. E. peninsula of Menado alone 
is of volcanic origin, and has three active volcanic peaks 
about 5,000 feet high, near the east extremity. . . 
The surface of the central mainland, and of portions of 
the S. W. and S. peninsulas, is mostly elevated table-land, 
covered with excellent pasture grasses, upon which are found 
grazirig great numbers of wild horses and buffaloes, as on 
the prairies of America. Rich alluvial deposits of gold 
have been found in many places ; tin and copper are also 
found ; and the iron ore is of a very superior quality. 
A very dense forest covers the mountainous por- 
tions of the island ; and about one-fifth of the island is 
elevated prairie-land." 

McCulloch says, timber is not very plentiful ; teak 
trees are few / but a large forest of them exists in one part 
of the island, which tJie natives report have been raised 
from imported seed. Rice, maize and cassava, with cot- 
ton and tobacco, are the chief articles grown ; but coffee 
is cultivated in the north-eastern peninsula ; and upon 
the table-lands, 2,500 feet above the sea, it is said " the 
American potato, and all the esculent vegetables of tem- 
perate climates, are cultivated with success." 

The island is divided among a number of small king- 
doms of partially civilized peoples, and petty tribes of 
savages. "The centre of the island (says the New 
American Cyclopaedia), is possessed by a barbarous people 



44-8 THE ISLAND OF CELEBES. 

called Tarajas, who resemble the Dyaks of Borneo ; they 
have, like them, a passion for possessing human heads!' 
The Bugis possess the southerly part of the central 
mainland, and the north part of the great southern pe- 
ninsula, and also the south-eastern peninsula ; and the 
Macassars occupy, subject to the Dutch, the south part 
of the southern peninsula. 

•McCulloch says, several languages are spoken on the 
island ; but the two dialects of the Bugis and Macassars 
are the principal, and the most improved tongues of the 
Archipelago. 

" The various independent nations of Celebes (he says) 
have each their peculiar form of government ; but they 
are, for the most part, limited monarchies — the sover- 
eigns being controlled by the subordinate chieftains, and 
these again by the mass of the people. The federal 
State of Boni consists of eight petty States, each governed 
by its own hereditary despot. ... In the State of 
Goa Macassar, the king is chosen by ten electors. . . . 
In the Bugis State of Wadju, forty chiefs constitute the 
great council of the nation, which is divided into three 
chambers, from each of which two members are nominat- 
ed, who in their turn nominate the chief of the confede- 
racy. The council of forty decide on all questions of 
peace and war. Women of the privileged families are 
eligible to the throne ; and women have frequently exer- 
cised the powers of sovereignty. They are, throughout 
the island, associated on terms of equality with the men, 
taking an active part in all the business of life. 

" Notwithstanding the symptoms of a considerable ad- 
vance in civilization, a great deal of rudeness and barbar- 
ity exhibit themselves among the inhabitants. Crimes 
are frequent ; thefts and robberies extremely so; a total 
disregard of human life seems to prevail, and murder and 
assassination for hire are by no means rare. Mahometan- 
ism is the predominant religion, especially in the south 
part of the island." 

Celebes was first visited by the Portuguese in 15 12, 
who formed settlements in the southern part of the 
island. In 1660 the Dutch conquered and took posses- 
sion of the Portuguese settlements, and held them until 



THE ISLAND OF CELEBES. 449 

the British captured them in 1810. They were restored 
to the Dutch in 18 16 ; and they have extended their pos- 
sessions from time to time, and now claim jurisdiction 
over 298,000 inhabitants, as heretofore stated (in sec. 8). 
In addition to Macassar, McCulloch says, " The Dutch 
have settlements on the bays of Tolo and Tominie ; and 
most of the native States are subordinate to them." 

The Bugis are superior in the useful arts, in industry, 
and intelligence, to all the native tribes of Celebes, Bor- 
neo, and the other islands of the East Indian Archipel- 
ago, except the Malays and Javanese ; and perhaps they 
are now superior to the Malays — though they were infe- 
rior to them two centuries ago. Like the Malays, they 
are a maritime people, of great energy of character and 
enterprise, for a half-civilized people. They have been 
rising in the scale of civilization and national import- 
ance for more than two centuries past. 

The New American Cyclopaedia (title Bugis) says, 
" Their colonies and emporia of trade are found in many 
islands, in all parts of the Archipelago ; but the chief 
seat of this people is in the south-western peninsula of 
Celebes, in the territories of Boni and Wajoo. The Bu- 
gis traders are the chief carriers and factors of the In- 
dian seas. In the European ports of Singapore, Malac- 
ca, Batavia and Rhio, their richly-freighted vessels are to 
be seen at all times. They had in 1857 about 950 small 
vessels, averaging 50 tons each, engaged in foreign trade ; 
and probably a still larger amount of tonnage employed 
in the pearl and other fisheries, and in trade with the 
Papuan islands, and other portions of the Archipelago. , 
. Their advancement in civilization keeps pace with 
their commercial development. Barbosa, in 15 15, de- 
scribed the Bugis and their neighbors, the Macassars, as 
ferocious pirates and cannibals." 

Previous to 1660, "the Macassars invaded the Bugis 
territory, destroyed the Pagan worship of the people, and 
forced them to receive teachers of the Mahometan faith. 
Islamism abolished head-hunting ; as now practised by the 
Dyaks in Borneo, human sacrifices, cannibalism, and many 
degrading superstitions ; and from the period of their con- 
version to the present day, that people have made rapid 



450 THE ISLAND OF CELEBES. 

progress toward a respectable position in the civilized 
world. It thus appears, there are peoples so low in the scale 
of civilization, that they may be raised and improved even 
by Mahometanism ; but the commercial intercourse of 
the Bugis with the Dutch and English, has probably con- 
tributed more than Islamism to improve them. It seems 
also that the Bugis were weak and subdued by the Ma- 
cassars a little more than two centuries ago ; but now 
they are independent and comparatively strong, while the 
Macassars have long been subject to the Dutch. 

Again, the New American Cyclopaedia says, the Bugis 
"have domesticated the horse, ox, buffalo, sheep, and 
goat. They cultivate cotton successfully, and manufac- 
ture it into cloths of substantial quality ; they are skil- 
ful workers in iron and copper; the wealthy construct 
houses of substantial materials, the walls of some being 
made of a solid mass of small broken stone and cement ; 
they build durable vessels ; in their navigation they use 
charts and compasses ; they have framed a maritime 
code, that has been admired by authorities in naval juris- 
prudence ; . . . but more than all, they have framed an 
alphabet. . . . The government of this people is an oli- 
garchy, or elective monarchy. The State of Boni is 
composed of iy principalities ; and that of Wajoo of 40. 
In both states the Sovereign is elected by the nobles, and 
from the patrician class. . . . The sovereign only 
holds power during good behavior, and may be deposed 
by an adverse majority vote in council ; hence there are 
frequent changes in the Presidency, as the Executive 
power of the Bugis may be termed. A privy council of 
five nobles is chosen to advise with the chiefs." 

Here are evidences of great progress in the useful arts 
and civilization, made by the Bugis during the last 200 
years ; and yet it all sprung from elements borrowed 
from Mahometan and Christian peoples ; from their 
commercial intercourse with the Malays and Portuguese, 
the Dutch and English, and the Javanese and Chinese. 
But it required intellectual capacities greatly above those 
of the Dyaks of Borneo, the Turajas of Celebes, the 
Papuan Negroes, or the descendants of the first inhabi- 
tants of any of those islands, to understand, adopt, and 



THE ISLAND OF BALI. 451 

apply intelligently to their own use, the arts and elements 
of progress, and the methods and processes, laws and 
institutions of nations more civilized than themselves. 

Sec. 12. The Island of Bali — its Population , Govern- 
ment and Prosperity. 

The island of Bali lies very near the east end of Java, 
and is sometimes called Little Java. McCulloch says, it 
is about 70 miles long, and has an average breadth of 
about 35 miles ; that the population in 1815 was estimat- 
ed at 800,000, and that it was then divided into eight in- 
dependent States, governed by despotic chiefs ; the village 
system prevailing there, as in Java. Hindooism, he says, 
prevails in Bali only, of all the islands of the Archipel- 
ago. 

The New American Cyclopaedia calls the area about 
2,250 square miles, and says the population was estimat- 
ed in 1 818 at 987,500. "A mountain backbone or con- 
tinuation of the Cordillera, of Java, extends across the 
island from west to east, and several peaks attain a great 
elevation — the peak of Bali 11,326 feet. . . . Lan- 
guage, features, and customs, clearly indicate that the 
Balinese are descendants of colonists from Java, which 
was once a great seat of the Hindoo faith." 

"A larger degree of security than is usually found 
among Asiatics, must exist among the middle and lower 
classes, to have promoted the present industry and re- 
markable pro >ductiveness of the island; yet its many petty 
political divisions are evidences of a rude and semi-barbar- 
ous condition!' It is divided into seven principalities or 
States, as follows : 

Karang Assam Population 1 50,000 

Baliling 

Badong 

Klonkong 

Tahanan 

Mengooi 

Gianjeer 



1 30,000 
130,000 
97,500 
1 80,000 
160,000 
160,000 



Total 1,007,500 



452 TIMOR, FLORES, AND SUMBAWA. 

They were attacked by the Dutch in 1846 and 1847, 
but maintained their independence, though they made a 
treaty of peace with them, in which they made some im- 
portant commercial concessions. 

If the population is not greatly overrated, it is nearly 
twice as dense as the average of China. It is scarcely 
equalled by any island, except Mauritius, or by any dis- 
trict of country in the world, not containing a large com- 
mercial or manufacturing city. But Hindooism, or 
Brahminism, without the degrading and depressing laws 
of caste, is favorable to peace and peaceful industry — 
else seven independent States could not live upon so 
small an island, without frequent wars, which would pre- 
vent such a density of population, and such a degree of 
prosperity. The exports of rice in 1845 were 21,000 
tons, and they are now estimated at 32,000 tons an- 
nually. 

With the exception of the valley of the Nile in Egypt 
(which is much less), scarcely one-tenth part as great a 
density of population was ever attained among a Mahom- 
etan people. For this extraordinary result I think we 
should give credit to the civilization of the Hindoos, re- 
formed by ridding it of the laws of caste. 

Sec. 13. Timor, Flores and Sumbawa. 

The island of Timor lies nearly east from Java, and 
south-east from Celebes. It is about 300 miles long, and 
from 30 to 60 wide — containing twelve thousand square 
miles, and perhaps more. McCulloch, on the authority 
of Herschelman, puts down the area at 8,800 square 
miles, and the population at 800,000. The natives 
of the interior (he says) are Papuan Negroes ; the 
coasts are inhabited by Malays, Chinese, Dutch and Por- 
tuguese, the latter possessing the town of Dilli, on the 
north-east side of the island. 

The New American Cyclopaedia estimates the area at 
12,200 square miles, and the population at 200,000. The 
native chiefs on the south and west coasts are said to ac- 
knowledge the supremacy of the Dutch, who have their 
principal settlement at Coepang, which has a good and 
safe harbor. 



THE MOLUCCAS, OR SPICE ISLANDS. 453 

The Almanac de Gotha states the population of the 
Dutch government of Timor in 1864 at 907,184; but I 
suppose that includes the tribes and peoples upon the 
islands of Flores, Sumbawa, Sandalwood, and some 
smaller islands in the vicinity, which acknowledge the 
supremacy of the Dutch, and are believed to be subject 
to the government of Timor. 

The length of Flores has been estimated at 200 miles, 
and the average breadth at 45 miles. The New Amer. 
Cyc. says the natives are divided into a number of dis- 
tinct nations, all speaking different languages. 

Sumbawa lies between Flores and Java. Length, as 
stated by New American Cyclopaedia, " 160 miles ; ex- 
treme breadth, 50 miles ; population about 80,000. It is 
divided into six native states, each governed by a rajah, 
who acknowledges the supremacy of the Dutch. The 
island has been subject to the Dutch since 1676." 

Sec. 14. The Moluccas, or Spice Islands. 

The Moluccas are a group of islands lying between 
Celebes, New Guinea and Australia. They are es- 
timated at several hundred islands, many of them 
small and uninhabited ; the whole having over 600,000 
inhabitants, of which the Dutch claim jurisdiction over 
55M68. 

Like the most of the other islands, they are inhabited 
by two races, that have feelings of deadly hostility to 
each other — the Malays, and the Papuan, or Oriental 
Negroes. The latter (says the New American Cyclo- 
paedia), supposed to be of the same family as the abo- 
rigines of Australia and New Guinea, have in many 
of the small islands been exterminated or expelled 
by the Malays, and in the larger ones only retained 
possession of the interior and more inaccessible parts. 
The Malays are much mixed with Chinese, and people of 
Arabian descent ; they are mostly Mahometans. The 
Papuans are pagans, and very stupid — though having 
had considerable intercourse with more active and com- 
mercial peoples for several centuries past, they are not 
so stupid and low in the scale of intellect as the abori- 



454 THE MOLUCCAS, OR SPICE ISLANDS. 

gines of New Guinea and Australia. They are savages, 
without much government or industry, except hunting 
and fishing. 

The Malays are a more active and intelligent people, 
and have more intellect and industry. The most of the 
Malay chiefs and princes acknowledge the supremacy 
of the Dutch, submit to their commercial regulations, 
and pay a small tribute ; but regulate their own domestic 
concerns in their own way. The Dutch have established 
three distinct governments for different clusters of the 
islands ; some of them are under the government of Me- 
nado, which is situated upon the north-eastern peninsula 
of Celebes. 

ist. The government of Ternate, which comprises the 
large island of Gilolo, and the smaller islands of Ternate, 
Morty, Mandiely, Batchain, and many others, with a 
population of 92,291, as stated in section 8. 

2d. The government of Amboyna, which comprises 
the islands of Amboyna, Ceram, Booro, and Amblau ; 
the area of which has been estimated at 12,800 square 
miles ; and their population at 316,392; of whom the 
Dutch claim jurisdiction over 167,273 (See ante, section 

8 )- 

3d. The Banda government ; which I suppose includes 
the Banda isles, and Timor Laut. The Banda islands 
are a cluster of nine islands, and some small islets. 
Their area has been estimated at 8,703 square miles, and 
their population in 1849, at 155,765. Timor Laut is 
about 70 miles long, and 25 broad, lying between Timor 
and New Guinea. 

Gilolo is a large island— having an area of about 8,000 
square miles, and Ternate a small island, situated near 
its west coast. Morse, in his Gazetteer, says the inhabi- 
tants of Gilolo are savages, " without laws or fixed habi- 
tations? This description applies only to the Papuan 
race, or Oriental Negroes, and not to the Malays, and the 
mixed races. 

The area of the island of Amboyna is stated by Mc- 
Culloch at 424 square miles, and the population in 1837 
at 45,000. The New American Cyclopaedia states the 
area at 282 square miles, and the population in 184 1 



NEW GUINEA, OR PAPUA. 455 

at 29,529, and says: "The inhabitants consist of Hora- 
foras {savage aborigines) who live in the woods ; Malays, 
who compose the bulk of the population ; Chinese, who 
are the chief merchants ; and Europeans, chiefly Dutch 
and Portuguese. Mahometanism is the prevailing re- 
ligion." 

The area of Ceram is estimated at 10,500 square miles. 
The population is stated in London Cyclopaedia of Geog- 
raphy, at nearly 30,000 in 1 849, and in the New Ameri- 
can Cyclopaedia at 226,000 — consisting mostly of Malays 
and savage Horafo7 r as, who have a custom of collecting 
human skulls for ornaments. The New American Cy- 
clopaedia says: "The Malays are governed by several 
chiefs, who are subject to the Dutch residents at Am- 
boyna and Banda. The population has been thinned by 
the internal dissensions of the Malays, the attacks of the 
Horaforas and of pirates, and the ravages of the small- 
pox." The last sentence shows the condition of all the 
Oceanic islands which have not been subjected to Chris- 
tian nations, or only partially so. The barbarous tribes 
which occupy them, whether Pagans or Mahometans, like 
the North American Indians, are frequently at war with 
each other, which thins the population, and prevents 
much increase ; and if there be two hostile races, con- 
sisting of Pagan and Mahometan tribes, the wars are 
more frequent and bloody. 

The island of Booro, which is also subject to the gov- 
ernment of Amboyna, is said to have an area of 1,970 
square miles, and a population of 60,000. The Dutch 
have a fort on it. The island of Amblau lies 12 miles 
from Booro, is said to be 10 miles long, and to contain 
800 inhabitants. 

Sec. 15. New Guinea, or Papua, and reflections upon the 
character and condition of the natives. 

New Guinea is one of the largest islands in the world, 
being about 1,300 miles in length, from 50 to 400 in 
breadth, and having an area of 250,000 square miles. 
It is considerably larger than France, and probably more 
than five times as large as the State of New York. 



1 



456 NEW GUINEA OR PAPUA. 

Nothing is known of the interior. European vessels 
have sailed along the coasts and into the bays, had some 
commercial intercourse with the inhabitants at different 
points, and observed mountains in the distance ; but 
have never penetrated far into the country. The Dutch 
have taken possession of the western part of the island, 
and formed some settlements upon it, and claim jurisdic- 
tion over it. The indications are that it is interspersed 
with mountains, valleys, and plains, some of them so ele- 
vated as to produce a considerable variety of climate. As 
it lies between the equator and the nth degree of south 
latitude, the climate must be warm, like that of Central 
America and the West Indian Islands ; it is also moist, 
and vegetation remarkably luxuriant; and many of the 
forest trees are enormously large, some of them growing 
to the height of 180 feet. 

" The Papuan Negroes (says McCulloch, of whom a 
short notice was given in section 3) continue, for the 
most part, in their original state of nakedness and barba- 
rism, devoid of homes or clothing, and subsisting princi- 
pally on the precarious produce of the chase, or on the 
spontaneous products of the forest. . . Boys and girls 
go entirely naked until puberty!' 

The New American Cyclopaedia says," The accounts of 
all the navigators who have touched on its coasts agree 
in describing it as a rich and magnificent country. . . 
The inhabitants are a variety of the Negrillo, or Oriental 
negro, and it is inferred that they are of the same race 
throughout the island. . . The inhabitants of the 
west coast, having been for ages in communication with 
the people of the Moluccas islands, have received a por- 
tion of their civilization. They have good dwellings, 
are decently clothed, build large rowing and sailing boats 
have a knowledge of iron, cultivate the ground, and have 
two domestic animals, the hog and the dog. . . When the 
Dutch visited the south coast, in 1822, they encountered a 
tribe of naked and ferocious savages, who avoided every at- 
tempt made to hold intercourse with them. They had 
canoes, but no domesticated animals, and did not know the 
use of iron. The inhabitants are divided into small, inde- 
pendent tribes, who speak different languages, and live in 
a state of almost continual warfare!' 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 457 

The last sentence describes the condition of savages 
in all countries, and more particularly in tropical climates. 
Having no written language, but numerous dialects ; no 
arts ; very few domestic animals ; no employments except 
hunting, fishing y and war ; no laws except a few rude 
customs ; no organization except a slight tribal union ; 
being held together mostly by family ties and associa- 
tions, and by a common dialect, and common hatreds 
and dangers — without any bond of union between differ- 
ent tribes ; having no fixed residences, or recognized pos- 
sessions with definite boundaries ; they are necessarily 
at war with each other much of the time. Such is the 
condition of the tribes, except those of the western part 
of the island. Never having had any intercourse with 
civilized, or even half-civilized people until recently, they 
are much lower in the scale of intellect, as well as in the 
arts and industry, than those of the western part. 
Their character and condition is about the same as that 
of the natives of Australia and the Hottentots of South 
Africa, which has been heretofore stated (See ante, ch. 
28, section 10 ; and ch. 29, sections 2 and 8). 

Such peoples have natural and personal rights, but no 
rights of sovereignty, and very few political rights. They 
are entitled to personal liberty, and to the products of 
their own industry ; but, being incapable of organizing 
or administering a national government, and really unfit 
for self-government, they have no right to the sov- 
ereignty of the forests they roam through ; and the 
sooner the island is taken possession of by some 
European nation, that can send out large numbers of 
emigrants annually to occupy and improve it, and re- 
strain the wars between the natives, the better it will be 
for the natives themselves. 

Sec. 16. The Philippine Islands. 

The Philippines form a group of ten large islands and 
many small ones, having an aggregate area (as stated by 
McCulloch) of 134,115 square miles, and a population, in 
1837, of 3,500,000. Luzon is the largest, having an area 
of 56,600 square miles, and 2,264,807 inhabitants. Ma- 

20 



458 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

nilla, the seat of the Spanish government of the islands, 
is situated upon the island of Luzon. 

Malte-Brun, writing about the year 1820, said, " Noth- 
ing certain is known regarding the population of those 
islands. M. de la Perouse supposed it to be 3,00x3,000. 
M. Gentil not more than 700,000." These estimates 
were made the latter part of the 18th century. 

The islands are usually hilly, and many portions of 
them mountainous ; but, having a warm and moist cli- 
mate, they are generally very fertile and productive in 
rice, millet, and maize, sugar and coffee, cotton and hemp, 
indigo and tobacco, with a great variety of other articles 
of minor importance. The Chinese implements and 
modes of culture are generally used. The coffee-plant 
was introduced by the Spaniards, the latter part of the 
last century. 

" The population of the Philippine Islands (says Mc- 
Culloch) is extremely various ; and independently of 
foreign settlers, the natives consist of a great number of 
distinct tribes, partly of Malay, partly of Papuan origin, 
and speaking several distinct languages or dialects. 
Some of the natives adhere to the Polytheism they pro- 
fessed before the arrival of the Spaniards ; but a large 
proportion have been converted to the Catholic faith, 
which is the common bond between them and their new 
masters." 

" The natives who are Christians (says Malte-Brun), 
have, by their more intimate intercourse with Europeans, 
acquired a share of energy and intelligence stiperior to 
their Pagan and Mahometan 7ieighbors." " These people 
(says M. de la Perouse) appear in no respect inferior to 
those of Europe. They cultivate the earth like men of 
understanding ; . are carpenters, joiners, smiths, gold- 
smiths, weavers, masons, etc." " The people here de- 
scribed (says McCulloch) are the Malays, who have pretty 
generally acknowledged the supremacy of the Spaniards, 
by whom they are treated as free subjects, and allowed to 
be proprietors of land. The Papuans, who chiefly occupy 
the higher parts of the country, and the less frequented 
islands, are miserable Savages, incapable of civili- 
zation, and avoiding all communication with foreigners. 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 459 

The rest of the population comprises European and Cre- 
ole Spaniards, Spanish and Indian Mestizoes, Mahomet- 
ans from the East Indies, and Chinese. The Spanish do 
not exceed 4,000 or 5,000." 

" The capitation tax, or annual tribute, is charged at 
certain rates on all the inhabitants except Europeans 
and Mestizoes. The Chinese, who constitute the chief por- 
tion of the shopkeepers, traders, mechanics, and household 
servants, are divided into four classes, for paying rates. 
The number of tribute-payers amounted, in 1837, to 
1,305,142." 

It appears from the Almanach de Gotha, that the Spa- 
niards claim jurisdiction over 2,679,500 of the inhabitants 
of those islands, and that their total population, in 1850, 
was 3,815,878. Murray says the population was found to 
be about 2,500,000, early in the present century. The 
New American Cyclopaedia says the area of the islands 
is " about 200,000 square miles ; population estimated at 
5,000,000. The total number of islands is about 1,200, 
but the greater part are of little importance, being mere 
rocks. About 40 are of considerable size. . . A 
range of mountains traverses the entire group, in a 
north and south direction, the summits of which seldom 
exceed 6,000 feet in height ; many of them are extinct 
volcanoes, while some are still subject to dangerous erup- 
tions. Among the mountains are extensire valleys and 
plains, numerous marshes and bogs, and several lakes. 
Some of the rivers are of considerable size, and, in con- 
nection with arms of the sea that extend inland, afford 
great facilities for internal commerce." 

The most of the " commerce of the islands is in the 
hands of foreigners. The value of imports and exports 
(says the New American Cyclopaedia) is estimated at 
$30,000,000 annually ; of which about half belongs to 
the British. During the year ending June 30th, 1858, 
fifty-one vessels under the flag of the United States ar- 
rived at the Philippines, with cargoes valued at $463,65 9, 

and their return cargoes were valued at $2,299,744 

The islands are divided into provinces, each under a gov- 
ernor appointed by the Crown of Spain. In the parts 
not subject to the Spaniards, the laws are chiefly framed 



460 NATIVES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

from the Koran," and the people are mostly Mahometans, 
though among many tribes in the interior, pagan customs 
and superstitions prevail. 

Sec. 17. Reflections tipon the Character, Condition, and 
Progress of the Natives of the Philippine Islands. 

The commerce, the increase of the products of indus- 
try, and the improved condition of the natives of Malay 
descent, all indicate a large increase in the population of 
the Philippine islands since they came under Spanish 
rule. What it was when the Spaniards first planted a 
colony at Manilla, in 1560, is totally uncertain, and a mat- 
ter of conjecture only. 

Savages are always divided into small tribes, that roam 
over large districts of country in proportion to their 
numbers, have no regular industry, and have their num- 
bers thinned by frequent wars. Barbarians have but 
little agriculture or productive industry of any kind, are 
frequently involved in wars, and are few in numbers in 
proportion to the extent of country they occupy. Fertile 
countries, occupied by nations that are civilized, or par- 
tially civilized, are generally more or less densely popu- 
lated in proportion to the grade of their civilization, and 
the amount of their productive industry. 

Taking into consideration these truths, the savage con- 
dition of the Negroes, and the barbarous state of the 
Malays in the 16th century, we may well imagine that the 
population of the Philippine islands was, at that period, 
pretty small ; probably not more than a million and a 
quarter or a million and a half at the end of the 16th 
century; 2,000,000 in the year 1700; 2,800,000 in the 
year 1800; 3,500,000, as officially reported in 1837; 
3,800,000, as reported in 1850 ; and 4,100,000 in i860. 

Mahometan colonies were found in the islands when 
they were discovered by Magellan, in 1521 ; the Malays 
were mostly Mahometans, and had made considerable 
progress in the useful arts, in industry, and in civiliza- 
tion. They were much more numerous than the Orien- 
tal Negroes. 

There is reason to believe that the Malays were im- 



NATIVES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 46 1 

proved in civilization and intelligence, in the useful arts 
and in industry, by their intercourse with Mahometan 
merchants and colonists, and by the Koran and Mahome- 
tan law and learning ; and that they have been still more 
improved by Spanish influence and law, by the Catholic 
missionaries, and the Catholic form of Christianity. But 
the Oriental Negro was too low in the scale of intellect, too 
averse to labor, and too savage in his habits and character, to 
come within the reach of such civilizing influences ; and 
hence he has remained the same low and grovelling savage 
from age to age, and from century to century, without any 
essential change or increase in numbers — without law or 
much political organization — governed only by his ani- 
mal appetites and propensities, ferocious passions, and a 
few rude customs. 

The history of the world furnishes no case of the peo- 
ple of a cold or temperate climate being improved by 
Mahometanism, with its many corrupt dogmas ; but the 
barbarous and semi-savage tribes of tropical regions 
have, in some instances, been improved by its influences ; 
though many of the Negro tribes of Africa and Oceanica 
are so low in the scale of intellect as to be beyond its 
reach. Similar remarks may properly be made in relation 
to the effete political and ecclesiastical influences of 
Spain. They have been of use in improving the condi- 
tion of the Malays of the Philippine islands, as well as 
that of the natives of tropical America ; but have never 
promoted very much, if any, the cause of civilization in 
any temperate climate. Such despotic systems are not 
adapted to any high grade of civilization. 

Spanish power and law gave peace and tranquillity to 
the native tribes of the Philippine islands, which, of all 
things in the world, is most needed by savage and semi- 
barbarous peoples ; and hence the Malays have improved 
under the dominion of Spain ; but other means are neces- 
sary to reach the Oriental Negroes, called in some of the 
islands Horaforas. The most effectual method of civil- 
izing the Negro and the North American Indian, is to 
teach them industry and law by a system of compulsory 
labor, as the youth of all industrious nations are taught. 
Indolence and vagrancy can be restrained by no other 



462 THE SOOLOO ISLANDS. 

means. Such peoples should not, however, be held as 
chattel slaves, and robbed of the fruits of their labor ; but 
should be treated as wards of the government, under the 
protection of law. That system has furnished the only 
effective means of saving the Negroes of Hayti from 
sinking into barbarism. 

Sec. 18. The Sooloo Islands, and the Piracies of the 

People. 

The Sooloo islands lie between the Philippines and 
Borneo. Murray says, " They are 27 in number, .the 
great Sooloo being 30 miles long and 12 broad ; and the 
population of the whole is estimated at about 300,000. 
The people are almost entirely devoted to piracy, for which 
their situation, on one of the most frequented routes of 
the Eastern Sea, affords ample facilities. From 300 to 
400 vessels, whose crews amount to 10,000, are continu- 
ally issuing forth on this fierce and perilous occupation." 

The New American Cyclopaedia estimates the area of 
the group at 1,300 square miles, and the population at 
120,000; and says, "The whole chain consists of about 
150 islands and uninhabited islets. Sooloo is about 40 
miles long and 12 broad ; its general aspect is hilly and 
undulating, and the scenery is picturesque and beautiful. 
Basilan is 42 miles long and 6 broad. The inhabitants 
are of the Malay race, and prof ess the Mahometan religion. 
The islands are subject to the Sultan of Sooloo, 
and are governed by numerous petty cJiiefs. They have 
the reputation of daring and habitual pirates ; but their 
power was broken by a Spanish expedition sent against 
them in 185 1." 

What a character is here presented ! It is a remark- 
able fact, that nearly all the pirates of the old world, 
during the last 1,200 years, have been Mahometans, or 
persons having had much intercourse with Mahometans, 
and been corrupted by Mahometan dogmas — giving a 
license to make war upon and to plunder peoples not 
professing the Mussulman faith. There is reason to be- 
lieve that the Chinese pirates were mostly made so by 
the corrupt dogmas of Mahometanism ; and it may be 



THE POLYNESIAN ISLANDS. 463 

remarked, that for nearly a thousand years past the pi- 
racies of the world have been almost entirely confined to 
hot and very warm climates — having been extremely rare 
in temperate, as well as in cold countries. 

Sec. 19. Climate of the Polynesian Islands, and the 
Character, Civil and Social State of the Natives. 

The islands heretofore described in this chapter, lying 
between the Peninsula of India beyond the Ganges and 
the continent of Australia, are generally known as the 
East Indian Archipelago. The remaining islands of the 
Pacific Ocean, lying between them and the continent of 
America, are frequently designated by Geographers by 
the name of Polynesia. Lying in the torrid zone, they 
all have a hot climate ; but being comparatively small 
and mountainous islands, the most of them having table- 
lands and plains considerably elevated above the sea, the 
heat is tempered by the sea breezes, by the mountain 
air, and by the elevation above the ocean. Hence 
there is considerable variety in the climate; and situa- 
tions elevated 2,000 feet or more above the sea, generally 
have a healthy and delightful climate. 

" The Political State (says Murray) of these 
islands is simple. The people do not enjoy the ncde in- 
dependence of savage life, nor are any of the governments 
moulded into a republican form. They are ruled by chiefs, 
in a?i absolute, or at least arbitrary manner, with a power 
only controlled by the influence of inferior chiefs, who 
hold sway over particular districts. These higher classes, 
being exempted from labor, and better fed than their in- 
feriors, are so much taller and handsomer, that they ap- 
pear almost like a different race. Yet amid this great 
distinction of ranks, no very strict police is maintained ; 
and the punishment of crimes is in general left to the 
private resentment of the injured party." 

" Social Life (he says) among these islanders presents 
peculiar aspects. Instead of those fierce and gloomy 
propensities which usually sway the breast of savage 
tribes, their manners are distinguished by courtesy, gayety, 
and amenity, which, combined with the beauty and abun- 



464 THE POLYNESIAN ISLANDS. 

dance with which the land is gifted, made it appear to 
the first voyagers like a terrestrial paradise. These flat- 
tering appearances, however, proved fallacious. Europe- 
ans soon discovered among them an universal propensity 
to pilfering. It was, moreover, soon evident that their 
dances and other amusements were conducted in a man- 
ner the most revolting to decorum, and that there existed 
in Otaheite a society called arreoy, who made it a regular 
system to have wives in common, and to put their offspring 
to death. Nor was infanticide the only practice marked 
by the ferocity of savage life. In many of the isl- 
ands, cannibalism is still practised. Even in Otaheite, 
war is carried on in the most atrocious spirit of ven- 
geance." 

" The Missionaries (he says) have attained a predomi- 
nant influence in the two principal of these groups ;" and 
" it seems undeniable that the grossest superstitions have 
been demolished, that human victims no longer bleed, 
that the arreoy society is broken up, infanticide has 
ceased, and public decorum is generally observed. . . 
On the whole, social life throughout these islands appears 
strangely compounded of three elements, which coexist, 
not in harmonious combination, but in hostile collision ; 
first, the rtide licentiousness, dark superstition, and wild 
gayety which originally characterized the natives : sec- 
ondly, the strict system of religious and moral observan- 
ces, which the Missionaries have introduced ; and lastly, 
the roving and reckless habits, of which the example is 
set by the numerous mariners who visit those shores. 
The Missionaries have introduced letters into the islands, 
where, previously, nothing of that nature existed ; neither 
hieroglyphics, pictorial representations, nor symbols of 
any description. As soon as Christianity was estab- 
lished, they set on foot schools ; and the natives applied 
themselves with extraordinary ardor to this new ac- 
quisition." 

Again, Murray says, u Amusements among a people who 
subsisted almost without labor, and were endowed with 
so gay a disposition, were varied, and pursued with ex- 
cessive ardor. The dances were performed on all occasions 
of pleasure, worship, or ceremonious reception," 



THE POLYNESIAN ISLANDS. 465 

Character of the Natives. 

McCulloch says, " Their temples were polluted with hu- 
man sacrifices ; and divination, witchcraft, &c, were prac- 
tised by the chiefs, as political engines for overawing their 
subjects (Ellis' Pol. Researches). Morality, as under- 
stood by Europeans, had no existence among this wild 
people, and the grossest animal appetites had full sway. 
The law of the strongest prevailed ; fierce and bloody 
wars frequently took place between the different insular 
tribes, on the most trivial pretexts, and conquest was 
generally followed by acts of the most horrible cruelty, 
including the extermination of the vanquished tribe; and 
occasionally even an indulgence in cannibalism. 

" The female sex, too (he says), was found in as licen- 
tious, degraded, and oppressed a state as i?i the wildest dis- 
tricts of Africa. A kind of civil marriage appears to have 
been generally observed; but wives were repudiated, on 
the slightest pretext, or else neglected for more fascinat- 
ing concubines. Polygamy was common in nearly all the 
islands, and in some groups it is still prevalent. Female 
virtue was formerly wholly unknown; and notwithstand- 
ing the labors of numerous missionaries, during upwards 
of twenty years, chastity is still, we apprehend, extremely 
rare. Sexual indulgences, and even infanticide, were en- 
couraged by a singular institution called the Arreoy Soci- 
ety, the baneful influence of which appears to have been 
pretty generally diffused over the islands of the Pacific. 
The missionaries state that about two-thirds of the chil- 
dren born were destroyed by their parents ; and notwith- 
standing the introduction of Christianity, the practice 
still prevails." 

As to races, he says, " The islanders of the Pacific 
may be divided into two distinct classes. The most an- 
cieut tribe is composed of Papuan Negroes, who are dis- 
tinguished by darkness of skin, smallness of stature, and 
black woolly or crisped hair. They chiefly inhabit the 
Admiralty Islands, New Britain, New Ireland, New Heb- 
rides, New Caledonia, and the Solomon's Islands. The 
other tribe, which is far more widely dispersed over the 
numerous groups of this great ocean, exhibits many of 



466 THE POLYNESIAN ISLANDS. 

the features belonging to the Malays and aboriginal 
Americans. . . It is remarkable that the chiefs and 
persons of hereditary rank, throughout the islands, are, 
almost without exception, superior to the common people 
in stateliness, dignified deportment, and physical strength!' 

What pictures are here presented of human life and 
character ! The division of the natives of Oceanica 
into small tribes, and the frequent wars between the 
tribes, are owing to the want of a written language, writ- 
ten laws, and organized governments — with tribunals to 
settle difficulties between tribes, and between chiefs. 
The ferocity of their wars, and their cannibalism and in- 
fanticide, are owing to their savage state, their unre- 
strained animal passions, and gross habits. But their 
licentiousness is caused mostly by the heat of the cli- 
mate. The fires of sensual passion seem to burn in many 
of them as violently as the natural fires do in the bowels of 
a raging volcano. Specimens of female passion, like Lot's 
daughters and Madam Potiphar, Cleopatra, the beautiful 
Queen of Egypt, and the present Queen of Spain, are 
very common in tropical climates, but almost unknown in 
cold countries. 

Licentiousness is not a vice peculiar to savage life. On 
the contrary, it is more common among highly civilized 
and wealthy, and even cultivated and idle people, seeking 
amusement, than it is among savages and barbarians ; and 
more common in large and wealthy cities, and among a 
polished and fashionable people, than it is among 
peasants in the country. During the first centuries of 
Rome, the Roman women were remarkable for chastity ; 
but licentiousness crept in with wealth and luxury, re- 
finement and indolence ; and when Rome attained the 
zenith of her power and glory, and her people had be- 
come corrupt and licentious, the chastity of the women 
of the German savages was spoken of by Tacitus as a 
remarkable phenomenon. 

By reason of the coldness of the climate, the low and 
precarious diet, and the severe physical efforts of the 
North American Indians north of the 40th degree of 
latitude, they are cold-blooded creatures, with but little 
sexual passion — perhaps not one-tenth part as much as 



THE POLYNESIAN ISLANDS. 467 

the well-fed African Negro. And Indian women are 
generally chaste, unless they are corrupted by white men, 
and yield to the seductive offers of money or fine pres- 
ents. As a people, our northern Indians are vastly more 
chaste than any Christian nation in the warm climates of 
Southern Europe ; and I think I may say, with safety, 
that they are more chaste than any Christian nation on 
the earth. Chastity, among a people living in the torrid 
zone, and whose ancestors have lived there for centuries, 
is the most difficult of all virtues. A propensity to 
licentiousness is produced by the heat of the climate, by 
an abundant and rich diet, by the indolence of the people, 
and by their gayety and social amusements ; and hence, 
among such a people chastity is scarcely regarded as a 
virtue. Christianity and law may lessen the evil, but 
cannot remove it. 

There is no material difference between the character 
of the natives of Oceanica and the Negroes of tropical 
Africa, except what has been produced on the one hand 
by the African slave trade, and on the other by the mari- 
time situation and habits of the islanders, and their in- 
tercourse with European and American mariners during 
the last three hundred years. 

Sec. 20. Arts and Industry of the Natives, and their 
Present Condition. 

" The natural advantages (says Murray) possessed by 
these islands, as to soil and climate, are not, perhaps, sur- 
passed by those of any other region. Agriculture is by 
no means wholly neglected ; though its operations are in 
many places nearly superseded by the spontaneous pro- 
fusion with which nature furnishes the means of subsist- 
ence, and even of luxury. The only domestic animals 
(indigenous to the islands) are the dog and the hog, 
both used as food, and forming luxuries which appear 
only at the tables of the rich." I may add, that through 
the influence of missionaries, seafaring men, and mer- 
chants, horses and cattle, goats and domestic fowls, 
coffee, and many European plants, fruits, and grains have 
been introduced into the most important islands ; and 



468 THE POLYNESIAN ISLANDS. 

that many tropical plants and fruits, including the sugar- 
cane and rice, have been introduced into islands where 
they did not grow spontaneously. And I may remark, 
that all the grains, many of the grasses, and nearly all 
the most valuable fruits and vegetables, have been trans- 
planted by man, and not only raised profitably in soils and 
climates where they did not grow spontaneously, but, with 
few exceptions, they have been greatly improved by his 
fostering care and cultivation. 

It was impossible for the natives of Polynesia to culti- 
vate the earth very much before they were visited by 
Europeans ; for they had not the use of iron nor copper, 
glass nor pottery, and had no utensils or implements of in- 
dustry, except such as were made of wood, stone, or 
bone. Murray says, " It is surprising how tolerably 
the deficiency was supplied by implements of stone, hard 
zvood, or bone, which were rendered fit for all the 
purposes of agriculture and industry. In particular, 
they had succeeded, with these imperfect means, in con- 
structing spacious and commodious canoes, fitted not only 
for navigating round tJieir coasts, and from one neighbor- 
ing island to another ; bitt for performiitg with safety 
voyages over a great extent of the Pacific. Some, destined 
for state or for zvar, are highly ornamented ; others 
are diligently employed in fiisliing, wherein the people de- 
rive their chief supply of animal food. The military im- 
plements, as usual in such societies, are variously and 
skilfully framed. The Missionaries have shown an en- 
lightened zeal to introduce European arts and industry. 
A carpenter and a weaver were sent to Otaheite ; and 
even a cotton factory was established at Eimeo." I may 
add, that Christian Missionaries have constructed written 
languages for several of the groups of islands ; have 
translated parts of the Bible into the native dialects ; and 
printed them and other books, upon printing presses in- 
troduced by them. 

Great progress was made by the natives of many of the 
islands, during the present century, in the useful arts and 
in industry, in intelligence and morality, as well as in 
Christianity. They have also greatly increased their 
comforts, and improved their physical condition and gen- 



THE POLYNESIAN ISLANDS. 469 

eral welfare ; though in many instances, where they have 
not come under European governments, but remained 
independent, they have declined in numbers. There are 
various causes for their decrease of numbers ; among 
which may be classed: 1st, The corrupting influences, 
and the increase of venereal and other contagious 
diseases, arising from intercourse with so many sailors 
and seafaring men. 2d, The introduction and exces- 
sive use of spirituous liquors ; and 3d, The introduction of 
fire-arms, swords, and other warlike implements, which 
have made their wars more destructive of human life. 

We have more complete evidence of the decline of the 
population of the Sandwich and Society islands, than of 
any others. 

Sec. 21. The larger Islands of Western Polynesia. 

New Caledonia lies directly east from Queensland, 
in Australia, is about 200 miles long, from 20 to 60 
broad, and has an area of more than 6,000 square miles. 
The population has been estimated at 60,000. The 
French claim jurisdiction over 55,000. It is less fertile 
than many of the islands of the Pacific ; but has some 
fine and fertile valleys, many large and well-watered 
plains, and large forests of sandal wood, and coal and 
iron in the mountains. The natives are of the Austra- 
lian or Oriental Negro race, divided into many tribes. 
The French took possession of the island in 1853, made 
it the seat of government for their Pacific possessions, 
and, after several contests with the natives, subjected 
them to their dominion. French missionaries have 
made several settlements, introduced live stock, and a 
variety of vegetables, fruits, and grains, including wheat 
and barley ; taught the natives some of the useful arts, 
agriculture, and the use of European implements, and 
converted many of them to Christianity. 

New Britain lies east of New Guinea, is about 303 
miles long, from 20 to 50 broad, and has an area of about 
12,000 square miles. The natives are Oriental Negroes. 
Very little is known of the island or its inhabitants, and 
I find no estimate of the population. The interior is 



470 THE POLYNESIAN ISLANDS. 

mountainous, there are extensive and fertile plains on the 
coasts, and much of the surface is covered with forests. 
It has several fine bays and harbors, and is believed to 
be a very valuable island. 

New Ireland, separated from New Britain by a 
narrow channel, is about 200 miles long, has an average 
breadth of 12 miles, and an area of 2,400 square miles. 
It has good harbors, fine forests of very large trees, and 
is believed to be a fine and productive island, very simi- 
lar to New Britain, and to other East and West Indian 
islands. I find no estimate of the population. 

New Hebrides are a group of about 20 islands of con- 
siderable size, and many small ones, lying a few hundred 
miles north-easterly from New Caledonia, of which the 
principal are : Espiritu Santo, 70 miles long and 30 broad ; 
Mallicolo, 60 miles long, by 28 broad, and Tanna and 
Erromango. Their area has been estimated at 2,500 
square miles, and population at about 200,000. 

Murray says, "The natives belong generally to the 
Papuan race. . . They go almost naked, and have few or 
no arts and manufactures ; but their weapons are con- 
structed with peculiar skill ; and the tribes are almost at 
perpetual war with each other ; yet in their social inter- 
course they are mild and friendly." 

The New American Cyclopaedia says, " They are 
courageous, active, and hospitable, but are accused of can- 
nibalism. In point of intelligence they are below the 
natives of most of the South Sea islands ; their habits are 
disgusting and their persons filthy. TJiey have 710 canoes, 
and use a sort of raft, on which they only venture a few 
hundred yards from the shore." 

Malte-Brun says, the women are treated as slaves, 
and that " The people of Mallicolo might, from their 
looks, almost be regarded as a kind of apes." They are 
about as low in the scale of humanity as the natives of 
Australia ; and, taking their low and degraded condition, 
frequent wars, and the small area of the islands into 
account, the estimate of their numbers seems very extrav- 
agant. It may well be doubted if they number even 
50,000. The estimates of savage tribes are very gen- 
erally from two to ten times too high. 



THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 471 

Solomon's Islands. — The group of islands east of New- 
Britain and of New Guinea, known as Solomon's Islands, 
consists of nine considerable islands, and many smaller 
ones, the area of which has been estimated at 10,000 square 
miles. Four of them are said to be each from 60 to 70 
miles long, and one of them 1 30 miles long and 20 broad. 
They were first discovered in 1567, by Mendana, a Spanish 
navigator, lost sight of for two centuries, and rediscovered 
by Carteret in 1767, and by other navigators since. They 
are inhabited by two races, the Papuan Negro, and the 
Malay race ; but very little is known of their condition 
and character, and nothing of their numbers. 

Sec. 22. The Sandwich Islands. 

The Sandwich Islands form a solitary group, lying di- 
rectly west from Mexico. They are ten in number, of 
which eight are inhabited, and two are barren rocks. 
Only seven have any considerable number of inhabitants. 
They contain an aggregate area of nearly 7,000 square 
miles. 

These islands were discovered by Capt. Cook, in 1778. 
They were then independent of each other — each being 
ruled by its own chief. Between the years 1 784 and 1 8 19, 
they were all subjected to the leading and most talented 
chief, who became the first monarch of the group of isl- 
ands, by the name of Kamehameha I.; and the crown 
has been hereditary in his family ever since that time. 

The first American missionaries went to the islands in 
1820. The natives then had no written language, and no 
arts or industry of any account. The lands were all owned 
by the king and his chiefs, and the people were substan- 
tially serfs. The language was reduced to writing in 
1822 ; books printed, schools established, courts of justice 
established, roads made, and a code of written laws enacted ; 
and in 1840 a constitution was promulgated by the king. 

The population was estimated by Capt. King, in 1779, 
at 400,000. The extravagance of his estimate was shown 
by the more accurate examination and estimate made 
by the missionaries about the year 1823, which made it 
about 142,000. 



472 THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 

The area in square miles has been estimated, and the 
population of the several islands, at different periods, 
reported as follows : 

Area« 1823. 1853. 1866. 

Hawaii 4,500 85,000 24,450 19,808 

Maui 600 20,000 17,574 !4>035 

Molokai ... 1 70 3,000 3,607 1,299 

Lauai 100 2,000 600 394 

Oahu 520 20,000 19,126 19,799 

Kauai .... 520 12,000 6,991 6,299 

Niihau 790 325 



142,000 73,I3S 61,959 

The first official census was taken in 1832, when the 

population was reported at 1 30,3 1 5 

In 1850 it was reported at 84,165 

In i860 it was reported at 69,800 

The foreign residents in i860, were 2,716 

and in 1866 4,*94 

Of whom, 1,205 were Chinese. 

The Honolulu Commercial Advertiser says : " The 
whole number of males is 34,395, a diminution of 985 
from the number, 35,379, in i860. The females are 28,- 
564, a diminution of 3,141 from the number, 31,705, in 
i860, showing a rapid reduction in the reproductive pow- 
er of the nation." This is ascribed mainly to the prac- 
tice of indiscriminate concubinage, which the Commercial 
Advertiser affirms to be " gaining ground fearfully among 
all classes, threatening to exterminate the race." 

" The total number of married persons is 31,287, a frac- 
tion short of 50 per cent, of the whole. In i860 the mar- 
ried were 38, 1 24, showing a decrease of 6,837, or J % per cent. 
Of the total population there are 46,281 over fifteen years 
of age, of whom 31,287 are married, leaving 14,994, or 
32.6 per cent, unmarried, confirming the preceding state- 
ment." 

There are discrepancies in these statements which I 
cannot correct. 

The natives of these islands have enjoyed peace and 



THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 473 

tranquillity, under the best of all the native governments 
of Oceanica, with the blessings of missionary efforts and 
of Christianity, as far as they were in a situation to prof- 
it by them, for nearly 50 years— with as much education 
as their limited capacities would enable them to acquire ; 
and yet they have declined in numbers more than half, 
in 34 years, from 1832 to 1866. What can be the cause 
of the great decrease in numbers, when they have im- 
proved in intelligence, in the useful arts, in industry, in 
social condition, and in the comforts of life ? 

The females, it seems, are decreasing much more rapidly 
than the males. No reason can be assigned for that except 
the fact that great numbers of them are harlots. Chastity 
seems to be a very rare virtue among them. Burning 
with sexual passion in that hot climate, they cannot re- 
sist the offers of money and fine presents made by the 
several thousand sailors that visit those islands annually ; 
and hence the most of them stray from the paths of vir- 
tue, indulge in such excesses that they have few children, 
and early in life fall victims to diseases incident to a dis- 
solute career. Harlots are generally short-lived, seldom 
have many children, often communicate loathsome dis- 
eases to their husbands and paramours, and frequently 
transmit them to their children also. By such means, 
the whole nation are becoming infected with disease, to a 
greater or less extent ; and it threatens their extermina- 
tion. The physical laws of God are inexorable ; and as 
their professions of Christianity cannot save them, in 
such a climate, from dissolute conduct, which produces, 
communicates, and transmits diseases, it cannot save them 
from premature death, nor from destruction as a people. 

Look at the tables, and the statement of sexes and ages 
following them. Only 61,959 inhabitants in 1866, of 
whom 46,281 were over 15 years old, and but 15,678 
under 15 years old. Only 25^ per cent, of the whole 
population under 15 years old ; while in our States lying 
south of the 35 th degree of latitude, 48 per cent, of the 
population in 1840 was under 15 years old, and 31,2 per 
cent, of the population of France, prior to the revolution 
of 1789, when it increased very little, was under 15.* 

* See vol. i. of this work, page 587. 



474 OTHER GROUPS OF OCEANIC ISLANDS. 

The small percentage of children, of itself, shows the 
decline of the population. 

The New American Cyclopaedia says : " The climate is 
very equable, and regarded as healthful. The decrease in the 
native population is owing partly to emigration on whale 
and other ships, and partly to the ravages of syphilis, small- 
pox, and other epidemic diseases, which seem specially 
fatal to the islanders." Men only, and not harlots, are 
taken on whale-ships ; but the facts are, as heretofore 
shown, that the women are decreasing in numbers much 
more rapidly than the men. The cause of their decrease 
is not emigration. 

The inhabitants of none of the other islands, and no other 
nation on the earth, are in the same danger of extinc- 
tion from intercourse with foreigners. No other people 
are annually visited by so many sailors, in proportion to 
their numbers. The natives of many of the islands and 
groups of islands, have increased in numbers, under the 
influence of missionaries and their intercourse with Eu- 
ropeans. 

It is an evidence of the advancement of the Sandwich 
islanders that, when the missionaries arrived there, none 
but the chiefs pretended to own land. Now there are 
7,154 landholders, which is nearly one-third of the males 
over fifteen years of age. 

The number returned as agriculturists is 8,358 ; hired 
laborers, 5,025 ; and mechanics, 1,046. 

Sec 23. Other groups of islands of Oceanica. 

1. The Ladrones, or Marianne Islands, are a group 
of about twenty islands, lying directly east from the Phil- 
ippines, only five of which are inhabited. When dis- 
covered in 15 12, the natives were estimated at 40,000. 
The Spanish made a settlement on one of them in 1678, 
and in their efforts to subject the natives to their gov- 
ernment the most of them were exterminated, so that in 
1 8 16 the inhabitants of the three principal islands con- 
sisted of only 5,389 persons, chiefly Spaniards, and In- 
dians from Peru. The Spanish now claim jurisdiction 
over 5,500 persons, and the whole population of the isl- 
ands is estimated at 10,000. 



OTHER GROUPS OF OCEANIC ISLANDS. 475 

2. The Pelew Islands lie east of the southerly portion 
of the Philippines, and west of the Carolines. They are 
about 20 in number, the largest of which is 28 miles 
long and 14 broad. The inhabitants are treacherous and 
bloodthirsty savages. 

3. The Caroline Islands (says Malte-Brun) " are 
about 80 in number, and very fertile. The inhabitants, 
who are very numerous, resemble those of the Philippine 
Islands. According to letters of the Jesuits, each island 
had its own chief ; but the whole acknowledged the au- 
thority of one king, whose residence was at Lamurca. 
The nobility are haughty, and the people enslaved. 
Even in this remote corner of the world, the practice of 
Negro slavery is known!' 

Murray says the natives " equip large barks with sails, 
and, by the aid only of the stars, navigate across those 
"stormy seas to the Ladrones. There they obtain iron, 
and some European manufactures." 

4. The Feejee Islands lie between 1 5 and 20 degrees 
south latitude, east of Queensland, in Australia. The 
New American Cyclopaedia says : " There are 225 isl- 
ands, about 80 of which are inhabited ; population vari- 
ously estimated at from 1 30,000 to 300,000. Two of the 
islands only are of considerable size, Great Feejee, and 
Great Land : the former 90 miles from east to west, and 
50 from north to south, and supposed to have 50,000 in- 
habitants ; the latter 100 miles long, with an average 
breadth of 25 miles, and population estimated at 31,000." 
The islands are mostly of volcanic origin, and are moun- 
tainous. Cotton grows wild. 

" The islanders (says the New American Cyclopaedia) 
are divided into a number of tribes, each governed by 
its native chief. Of these 8 are paramount, and the rest 
in a state of vassalage, more or less complete. The rule 
of the chief is absolute and patriarchal. A well-defined 
system of customary law, however, regulates the subordi- 
nation of one district to another. The king is assisted 
by a council of elders and men of the highest rank. 
. . Society is divided into six recognized classes : 1, 
kings and queens ; 2, chiefs of large districts or islands ; 
3, chiefs of towns, priests and ambassadors ; 4, distin- 



476 OTHER GROUPS OF OCEANIC ISLANDS. 

guished warriors of low birth, and chiefs of the car- 
penters ; 5, common people ; 6, slaves by war. Rank is 
hereditary through the female line. The dignity of a 
Pagan chief is estimated by the number of his wives! 1 
" A Feejeean is always armed, and war is his normal 
condition." 

The Feejeeans are Pagans and Polygamists, savages 
and cannibals. The first Protestant missionaries reached 
these islands in 1835. In 1857 there were 8 Protestant 
missions open there. 

They have established schools ; have the aid of near- 
ly 200 native teachers, a large number of scholars, and 
a good attendance of the natives upon religious services ; 
and have made considerable impression upon the native 
mind. 

5. Friendly Islands — called by the natives Tonga 
islands. They consist of a cluster of 30 considerable 
islands, and about 150 small ones, lying east of the Feejees. 
Population estimated at 25,000 to 80,000. 

Tongataboo, the principal island, 18 miles long, and 12 
broad, is a low coral island, not more than 60 feet above 
the sea. Malte-Brun says "it is divided into three 
sovereignties : Ahifo in the north, Mooa in the centre, 
and Ahedshi in the south-east. Each of these districts 
has its sovereign. The prince of the Northern Canton 
has latterly assumed the political ascendency. All the 
chiefs of the adjoining islands enjoy a despotic authority, 
but they do homage and pay tribute to the State of 
Tongataboo." 

The people are cannibals and ferocious savages ; and 
the name, Friendly Islands, is the most terrible misnomer 
ever applied to any island or people. 

Murray says, " An European vessel having fallen into 
their power, was plundered, and the crew murdered with 
merciless cruelty. Their wars are carried on with the ut- 
most ferocity." 

The natives having imbibed the idea that a pestilential 
disease which desolated the islands, owed its origin to 
the first missionaries who visited them, put several of 
them to death (as Murray says) ; and others perished in 
civil wars. 



OTHER GROUPS OF OCEANIC ISLANDS. 477 

The Wesleyan missionaries, who went there in 1827, 
have been more successful. They established schools 
and a printing-press, and have made considerable impres- 
sion upon the native mind, and the most of them have 
become nominal Christians. 

6. The Navigator's Islands, are a cluster of four 
principal islands and five smaller ones, lying north-east- 
erly from the Friendly Islands, between the 12th and the 
15th degree of south latitude. The area of the whole 
has been estimated at 2,650 square miles, and the popu- 
lation at 56,000. They are of volcanic origin. 

Schools and a printing-press have been established by 
Christian missionaries, considerable impression made 
upon the native mind, and many converted to Christianity. 

7. Cook's Islands are a cluster of low, coral islands, 
lying between the Friendly and Society Islands. Only 
four of them are of any considerable size. The New 
American Cyclopaedia says the English missionaries have 
made many converts among them to Christianity, and 
that the population is estimated at 50,000. 

8. The Society Islands. — This group consists of 
six considerable islands, and several small ones. Their 
area has been estimated at 700 square miles, and the 
population at 15,000. The inhabitants were despicable 
savages when first visited by Europeans. Their charac- 
ter and condition have been heretofore given, in section 19. 
They have suffered about as much from their licentious- 
ness, as the Sandwich Islands ; but our information in 
relation to them is not so full and complete. The New 
American Cyclopaedia says Capt. Cook estimated the 
population of Tahiti (the principal island) "at 80,000; 
but the first missionaries estimated it, along with that of 
the neighboring island of Eimo, at 10,000 souls. The 
entire population of these two islands is now only about 2,000, 
four-fiftlis having been cut off by venereal diseases, small- 
pox, measles, and rum. The social condition of this rem- 
nant is improved by the labors of the missionaries, but 
their moral conduct is still very irregular'' 

The French exercise a protectorate over the four 
principal islands, the population of which is estimated 
in the Almanach de Gotha for 1867, at 10.347. 



478 oceanica and its inhabitants. 

9. The Low Islands, or Paumatu Archipelago, 
are said to consist of over 30 coral islands, just raised 
above the surface of the ocean, between the Society and 
Marquesas Islands. Murray says Beechey describes the 
natives as allied to the Oriental Negro, and in a very low 
state of civilization. 

10. The Mendana Archipelago, including the Mar- 
quesas and Washington Islands, are elevated and moun- 
tainous. The mountain peaks, rising to the height of 
4,000 or 5,000 feet, are broken and craggy. They form a 
cluster of 13 small islands, having an aggregate area 
of about 1,800 square miles, a population estimated by 
Murray at 40,000, and more recently and probably more 
correctly estimated by the New American Cyclopaedia 
at 25,000. The latter authority says : " They are divided 
into many tribes or classes^ among whom bloody wars are 
of frequent occurrence. . . Among the peculiar social in- 
stitutions of the islanders is polyandry, the woman choos- 
ing her husband or Jiusbands, and retaining them or not, 
according to her pleasure. Cannibalism is also practised 
sometimes, but simply as an act of vengeance." 

The French took possession of the Marquesas Islands 
in 1842, and claim jurisdiction over 10,000 inhabitants, 
as shown by the Almanach de Gotha for 1867. 

There are many other small, isolated islands in Ocean- 
ica, not of sufficient account to be noticed in a work like 
this. 

Sec. 24. General Comments upon Oceanica and its 
InJiabitants. 

A hundred or more generations of the ancestors of the 
natives of Oceanica having lived in the torrid zone, and 
their brains and constitutions been moulded and formed 
in a tropical climate, a type of constitution and character 
has been formed adapted to the climate, and to the low 
and savage social condition of the people; which has 
been transmitted from parent to child, from one genera- 
tion to another. The proper name for it is the tropical 
and Pagan type of man. The minds of the people are 
filled with strange delusions, debasing superstitions, and 
often with revengeful passions. Peoples of such origin, 



OCEANICA AND ITS INHABITANTS. 479 

who have been educated in the precepts and customs of 
Christianity, Mahometanism, Buddhism, or Brahminism, 
have the same physical and cerebral constitutions, and 
the same mental qualities ; but having different ideas 
and trains of thought, different materials in the mind 
upon and from which to reason, and different standards 
of opinion and modes of reasoning, they have different 
mental characteristics, and somewhat different types of 
character. 

The modes of living in the interior — mostly by hunting, 
and upon the spontaneous products of the earth, or 
upon the sea-board by fishing and commerce — may and 
do exercise and develop their faculties in different 
directions ; but such differences do not materially alter 
the type of character. Their standards of opinion and 
modes of reasoning are essentially the same. The 
natives of Oceanica exhibit the same volatile, fickle, and 
frivolous character ; the same passion for dancing and 
other amusements ; the same strong tendency to li- 
centiousness ; the same deficiency of conscience and 
moral sense ; and the same general type of character, 
as the Negroes of tropical Africa, St. Domingo, and 
other West India islands. They are governed by unre- 
strained passions, and are often very ferocious and cruel, 
when their resentments and revengeful passions are 
aroused. 

Their minds being weak, their knowledge very limited, 
and their animal passions strong, they are generally 
governed by the latter, and very little by the results of 
their own reflections and reasoning. Hence they have 
very little self-control, and are totally unfitted for the 
proper exercise of political power, and generally very 
poorly fitted for the direction of their own industry. 
The history of the islands of Oceanica shows very clearly 
that the natives are incapable of enlightened legislation, 
or the proper administration of law ; that it is impossi- 
ble for them to maintain law and order, or peace and 
tranquillity, or to make any advances in industry and 
civilization, without foreign aid. So long as they remain 
independent, swayed by their own passions and impulses, 
they will be poor and miserable savages, constantly at 



48O OCEANICA AND ITS INHABITANTS. 

war with each other, and these fine islands will remain 
unimproved, and nearly valueless to the human family. 
The sooner the islands and islanders shall have been 
subjected to the dominion of nations of Europe and 
America, the better it will be for them. In a state of 
independence and self-government, they have never im- 
proved, either in the useful arts and industry, numbers, 
or civilization ; but when subjected to Dutch rule, they 
have generally improved more or less, and more rapidly 
during the last thirty years than ever before. Their 
history and condition are sufficient to show that the 
visions of many of our countrymen about the natural 
equality of the races of men, are as idle as the winds. 

The condition of the people, the Malays as well as the 
Papuan Negroes, shows their intellectual inferiority to 
the Europeans, and to all the Asiatic nations of temperate 
climates. Their condition and history, since their dis- 
covery by European navigators, suggest the following 
conclusions : 

1st. That the Oriental Negroes were the first inhabi- 
tants of those islands ; that their ancestors left the con- 
tinent of Asia when the inhabitants of the countries 
from which they emigrated were in a barbarous state, 
without a written language, without any knowledge of 
the art of smelting and working the metals, or of the 
mechanic and useful arts ; and that they were so low in 
the scale of humanity and civilization, that they probably 
degenerated in this condition, in the hot and enervating 
climate of those rich tropical islands. 

2d. That the ancestors of the Malays were later emi- 
grants to the islands ; that they brought with them 
written languages, and many of the useful arts, and were 
sufficiently elevated in the scale of humanity and civili- 
zation, to apply and use their knowledge and faculties 
advantageously, and to maintain their position without 
degenerating. 

3d. That fetich ism and polygamy, infanticide and can- 
nibalism, and such societies as the Arreoi may originate in 
Oceanica and tropical Africa, but no -element of civiliza- 
tion or progress ever has. Whenever these peoples have 
come in contact with Europeans, without being subjected 



OCEANICA AND ITS INHABITANTS. 48 1 

to their laws and government, they have been corrupted 
rather than improved ; they have obtained intoxicating 
liquors, gunpowder and fire-arms, and other deadly 
weapons, which have rendered' their wars more destruc- 
tive of human life ; contagious diseases have been intro- 
duced ; and they have very generally decreased in num- 
bers. The Sandwich and Society Islands furnish the 
most striking examples of such decrease. Wherever 
the islanders have come under Dutch rule, they have ob- 
tained security of person and property, peace and tran 
quillity ; have improved in the arts and in industry, been 
gradually elevated in the scale of humanity and civiliza- 
tion, and increased in numbers. Such has been the 
case also with the natives of the Philippine Islands 
under Spanish rule. As to the few islands under the do- 
minion of the French, sufficient time has not elapsed to 
test its influence upon them ; but it can hardly fail to be 
beneficial. 

The Dutch constitute the great commercial, naval, and 
governing power in the East Indian Archipelago, or 
Western Oceanica ; and the probability is, that they 
will gradually extend their dominions in Borneo and in 
New Guinea, until they obtain the sovereignty of the 
whole of those islands. They were charged with pur- 
suing a very narrow, and selfish, and oppressive policy, 
until within the last quarter of a century. Like that of 
the British in India, their policy has been gradually liberal- 
ized and improved ; and there is no reason to doubt that 
it has become eminently beneficial to the natives and 
Chinese, who have come under their dominion. 

The principal difficulty in extending the dominions of 
the Dutch, arises from their small population at home ; 
and their inability to send out many emigrants to colo- 
nize and improve such vast new islands as Borneo and 
New Guinea. If those islands could be under the do- 
minion of Prussia and Germany, 50,000 or more emi- 
grants might be sent out annually to occupy and im- 
prove them ; it would relieve the pressure of a crowded 
population in Germany, aid in building up a great 
Oceanic German empire, and make the large natural re- 
sources of those islands useful to the human family. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

Sec. I. Preliminary Remarks upon the Islands. 

The West India Islands have filled a large space in 
the commercial world, during the last two hundred years. 
Lying mostly in the torrid zone, only a few of them be- 
ing north of the tropic — having an abundance of rain, 
a moist and hot climate, and generally a rich soil, vege- 
tation is very luxuriant ; and with fair culture, their pro- 
ductions are large. They have furnished the most of the 
sugar, rum, and tropic fruits, and a large portion of the 
coffee consumed by the Europeans, as well as the people 
of the United States ; and their forests are rich in ma- 
hogany and other woods, of great value for cabinet work, 
and many other uses. 

Like the East Indian Archipelago and the Polynesian 
Islands, they are mostly of volcanic origin, and have 
mountains or chains of mountains in the interior, of an 
elevation of from 2,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea, with 
some peaks still higher ; and often ranges of hills and 
intervening valleys and plains, between the mountains 
and the sea. 

The heat of the climate is modified by the land and 
sea breezes, and by the mountain air. In the low coun- 
try, on the coast, the climate is very hot, and the inhabi- 
tants, and particularly those of European descent, are 
subject to bilious diseases and fevers; but on the hills 
and table-lands a thousand feet or more above the ocean, 
the country is very generally healthy for persons accus- 
tomed to a tropical climate ; and 3,000 feet or more 
above the sea, the climate is comparatively temperate, 
and generally delightful. 

These tropical islands are so beautiful and charming 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 483 

for about eight months of the year, and so desirable, 
that all the commercial nations of Europe have been 
anxious to possess some of them. Cuba and its depen- 
dencies, the Isle of Pines, and Porto Rico, belong to 
Spain ; Guadaloupe and its dependencies, La Desirade, 
Les Saintes and Marie Galante, Martinique and part 
of St. Martin, belong to France ; Curacoa and its depen- 
dencies, St. Eastatius, Saba, and part of St. Martin, be- 
long to the Dutch ; St. Thomas, St. Johns, and St. Croix, 
or Santa Cruz, belong to the Danes — the two former of 
which our government has negotiated a treaty to pur- 
chase. St. Bartholomew belongs to the Swedes. The 
large island known by the several names of Hispaniola, 
St. Domingo, or Hayti, is independent, and divided be- 
tween the two Negro republics of Hayti and Dominica. 
The Bahama islands, lying north of Cuba and Hayti, Ja- 
maica, Anegada, Virgin Gorda, Tortula, St. Christopher, 
Montserrat, Nevis, Barbuda, Antigua, Dominica, St. 
Lucie, St. Vincent, Bequia, Barbadoes, Grenada, The 
Grenadines, Tobago, Trinidad, Grand Cayman, Little 
Cayman, Bieque, and Culebra, and the small islets con- 
tiguous to them, belong to Great Britain. 

Sec. 2. The Islands which belong to Spain. 

Cuba is the largest and most important of the colo- 
nies and possessions in the New World, still retained by 
Spain. Its area has been stated at 42,383 square miles ; 
and the small islands contiguous to its coasts, and in- 
cluded within the reefs that surround it, have an area of 
about 1,000 square miles. The Isle of Pines is also in- 
cluded in the government of Cuba. It lies directly 
south from the city of Havana, has an area of about 
1,200 square miles, is separated from Cuba by a channel 
about 35 miles in width, and had, in 1854, about 1,400 
inhabitants. It is believed that the area and population, 
as well as the commerce, of the Isle of Pines, and the 
other small islands around Cuba and under its govern- 
ment, have been generally included in its statistics and 
official reports ; which would make the area of the gov- 
ernment of Cuba about 44,600 square miles. It was 



484 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

discovered by Christopher Columbus, in 1492, and colo- 
nized by the Spaniards in 15 15. The aborigines nearly 
all disappeared long since. The descendants of those 
remaining are mostly mixed with the white and African 
population of the island. 

A chain of mountains runs through the whole length 
of the island, some of the peaks of which are from 7,000 
to 8,000 feet in height above the sea ; and the plains and 
valleys between the mountains and the sea, on each 
side of the island, are copiously watered and produc- 
tive. 

The details of the population by the census of 1775, 
and the gross population in 1791 and 18 17, have been 
stated in Vol. I., p. 599. 

The population as reported by the censuses of 1827 
and 1 84 1, was as follows: 

1827. 1841. 

Males. Females. Total. Total. 

Whites 168,653 I4 2 >398 311,051 418,291 

Free Mulattoes . . 28,058 29,456 57,514 88,054 

Free Negroes... 23,904 25,076 48,980 64,784 

Mulatto Slaves / - ar ( 10,074 

Negro Slaves j l8 3> 2 9° ™^V ^6, 94 2 j ^W* 

Total 403,905 300,582 704,487 1,007,624 

As two-thirds or more of the slaves imported are 
males, the great discrepancy between the number of 
male and female slaves in 1827, shows the activity of the 
foreign slave trade. 

The census of 1846 reported the slave population at 
323,759; that of 1849, at 323,897; that of 1853, at 
330,425, and that of 1857 at 374>549 — representing a 
decrease of more than 100,000 slaves between the years 
1 84 1 and 1846, when the slave trade was active ; which 
shows that the official reports of the slaves since 1841 
are not reliable. 

The Almanach de Gotha for several years states the 
population of Cuba in 1850, at 1,449,462, while the New 
American Cyclopaedia states it as follows : 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 485 

1849. 1853. 1857. 

Whites 457J33 $01,988 549^74 

Free Colored and Black.. . 164,410 176,647 174,810 
Slaves 323,897 330,425 374,549 

Total 945,440 1,009,060 1,099,033 

Asiatic colonists (Coolies) 5, 308 

The increase of the white, free black, and colored popu- 
lation reported, Indicates that the census as to them may- 
be nearly correct ; but for some reason, the reports of the 
number of slaves since 1841, are unreliable. My belief 
is, that not less than 140,000 slaves were omitted in the 
census of 1853, and more than 100,000 in 1857 5 an ^ 
that the total population at the latter period was at least 
1,200,000, including more than 500,000 slaves. It was 
probably 1,400,000 in 1867. The slave trade was nearly 
suppressed in 1846; but the constant increase of the 
free population, and the domestic increase of slaves in 
the United States, makes it improbable that there has 
been any decrease of the slave population of Cuba. 

COMMERCE OF CUBA. 

Value ofExports. Imports. 

In 1833 $13,996,000 $18,511,132 

1835 14,329,442 22,204,948 

1836 16,545,908 23,921,251 

From 1850 to 1858, the imports are said to have been 
from twenty-seven to thirty-two million dollars annually, 
and the exports about the same. 

The quantities of the principal exports have been re- 
ported as follows : 

Years— 1830. 1833. 1836. 

Sugar, (Arrobas)*.. y,868,88i 7,624,553 8,985,966 

Coffee, do 1,798,598 2,566,359 1,610,441 

Leaf tobacco, do 160,358 92,475 228,519 

Cigars, lbs 407,152 .617,713 518,442 

Molasses, hhds 66,219 95,768 109,549 

Rum (pipes) 5,595 3,227 3/ " 

* The arroba is 25 pounds. 



486 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

The exports of sugar from 1853 to 1858 have been 
stated at from 700,000,000 to 750,000,000 pounds an- 
nually, or from 28,000,000 to 30,000,000 arrobas. 

" The foreign commerce of Cuba (says the New Ameri- 
can Cyclopaedia), in proportion to its population, probably 
exceeds that of any other country on the globe." 

Steam-navigation, railroads, newspapers, and electric 
telegraphs, have all been introduced — and contributed 
to increase the intelligence, the activity, and industry 
of the people, and the commerce of the island. 

The first railroad was opened from Havana to Bejucal, 
15 miles, in 1837 ; and in 1857 there were 397 miles of 
railway in operation in the island. There were also 
about 40 newspapers and periodicals, of which 21 were 
published at Havana. 

Porto Rico is a fine island, lying east of St. Domingo, 
105 miles in length, and 40 miles broad, and has an area 
of about 3,800 square miles. The population, by the 
census of 1830, as officially reported, was 323,838 ; and 
in 1836 it was reported at 358,086 ; the details of which 
are stated in Vol. I., p. 600. The official report of the 
population in 1850, was only 380,000. We have had no 
official reports of any later date. It is very clear that 
there has been an attempt to conceal the number of 
slaves, in all the Spanish islands, since 1845 > an d hence 
we have no reliable information of the population since 
that time. 

Porto Rico has a mountain-range in the interior, with 
a summit of 3,678 feet in height, sloping down to the 
sea. It is a beautiful, fertile, and productive island — 
having an equable climate, and very good for a tropical 
one. It increased rapidly in population from 1780 to 
1836, and there is no reason to doubt that it has con- 
tinued to increase since the latter period. The foreign 
slave trade continued active until 1846, and yet less than 
one-fourth part of the inhabitants are slaves. 

The increase of the white inhabitants in six years, 
from the census of 1830 to that of 1836, was over 16 per 
cent. ; the increase of the slaves over 20 per cent., and 
that of free blacks and free mulattoes, was less than one 
per cent. Having enjoyed peace, we may well suppose 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 487 

that the whites and slaves continued to increase, until 
1846, at the rate of at least 15 per cent, in ten years ; 
that, as the population became considerably dense, 
the ratio of decennial increase diminished ; but since 
1846 it has probably been at least 10 per cent, among 
the whites, and five per cent, among the slaves and free 
colored people. Estimating the increase upon that basis, 
the population would be nearly as follows : 

In the year 1846. 1856. 1866. 

Whites 217,200 238,000 262,000 

Free colored 133,800 140,000 147,000 

Slaves 49,000 52,000 55,000 



Total 400,000 430,000 464,000 

The New American Cyclopaedia says : " The soil is 
particularly fertile, the proportion of sugar obtained from 
an equal area being much greater than in any of the 
other West India Islands. The value of the imports in 
1855 amounted to $5,785,990, and that of the exports to 
$4,771,715." 

Sec. 3. The islands which belong to France. 

Guadeloupe is the largest of the islands belonging 
to France. Its government has juristiction over Marie 
Galante, Les Saintes, La Desirade, and the French part 
of St. Martin. 

McCulloch states their area in square miles, and their 
population in 1836, as follows : 

Area. Free inhab. Slaves. 

Guadeloupe 534' 

Marie Galante 60 

Les Saintes 5 ^ 32,059 95,609 

La Desirade 16 

Saint Martin 20 

Total population 127,668 

Murray states the population in 1755, at 50,800 ; in 
1812, at 114,000; in 1827, at 135,516, of which 17,237 
were whites, 16,705 free colored, and 101,564 slaves. 



488 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

Martinique is 45 miles long, from 5 to 15 broad, and 
its area has been computed at 380 square miles. 

Murray states the population in 18 10, at 96,413; and 
in 1827, at 101,905, of which 9,937 were whites, 10,786 
free colored, and 81,182 slaves. 

McCulloch states the population in 1836, at 117,502, 
of which 40,000 were white and free colored, and 77,500 
were slaves. 

The New American Cyclopaedia states the population 
in 185 1, at 123,701 ; and in 1858, at 136,460. 

The Almanach de Gotha states the population on the 
authority of the official Tableau de la Population des 
colonies francais of Dec, 1862, at 135,017 ; and the pop- 
ulation of Guadeloupe and its dependencies at 138,501 ; 
which was equal to about 355 to the square mile for 
Martinique, and 218 for Guadeloupe and its dependencies. 
Such a density of population is rarely found in agricul- 
tural countries. It explains the reason of the low ratio 
of increase during the last fifty years. 

The colored population of Martinique are said to be 
ten times as numerous as the whites ; and in Guadeloupe 
they are twelve times as numerous ; and yet the reports 
of 1863 showed that 15,576 Coolies and Chinese laborers 
had been introduced into Martinique, and 15,062 into 
Guadeloupe. Such would not have been the case, if 
they were not more faithful, diligent, and valuable laborers 
than the negroes. 

The value of the exports of the islands, during the 
undermentioned years, were as follows : 

Years. Guadeloupe and dep. Martinique. 

1836 24,575,141 fr. 16,425,428 fr. 

1862 22,912,530 " 22,111,648 " 

1863 21,376,899 " 25,516,745 " 

The exports are very large in proportion to the popula- 
tion ; being for Martinique about $28, $33, and $37 per 
year, for each person, for the above-mentioned years re- 
spectively. The exports and the density of the popula- 
tion, both indicate the fertility, productiveness, and high 
cultivation of those islands. 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 489 

Sec. 4. The Islands which belong to the Dutch. 

The harbors upon the islands of Curacoa and St. 
Eustatius, are of great importance to the shipping in- 
terests and commerce of the Netherlands, as places of 
security for their vessels, where they can procure supplies 
and seamen, and refit when necessary ; but otherwise 
their West India possessions are of very little consequence. 

Curacoa, the largest, is situated in the Caribbean Sea, 
about 50 miles from the coast of Venezuela, is over 40 
miles long, has an average breadth of about 14 miles, and 
an area of about 600 square miles. It is said the soil is 
generally poor, and that there is a deficiency of water ; 
but by the industry of the inhabitants, tobacco, sugar in 
considerable quantities, indigo, maize, cattle, horses, 
asses, and sheep, are grown. The staple of the island, 
however, is salt. The port of Curaeoa has a narrow 
entrance, but is large and safe. 

The island was settled by the Spanish in the 16th cen- 
tury and taken by the Dutch in the 17th. The neigh- 
boring islands of Buen Ayre, Oruba (or Aruba), and 
Little Curaeoa, are subject to its government. 

St. Eustatius is a small island, having an area of 
about 190 square miles — lying a few miles N. W. from 
St. Christopher (or St. Kitt's). It was settled by the 
Dutch in 1635 5 an d the portion of it susceptible of im- 
provement and cultivation, which is not covered by a 
volcanic mountain in the centre, is very fertile, and 
highly cultivated. 

Saba is a small island about 12 miles in circumference 
— lying 13 miles N. W. from St. Eustatius, and south of 
St. Martin. A part of St. Martin also belongs to the 
Dutch. 

The population of these several Dutch possessions in 
December. 1859, an d December, 1865, is stated in the 
Almanach de Gotha for 1862 and 1867, as follows: 

1859 1865 

Curacoa, 19,596 19,864 

Aruba (or Oruba), .... 2,748 3,484 

Carried forward. . . . 22,344 23,348 

21* 



490 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

1859 1865 

Brought forward 22,344 23,348 

Buen Ayre, 2,903 3,579 

St. Eustatius, 1,927.. ... 1,936 

Port of St. Martin, 3,127 2,771 

Saba, 1,861 1,809 



Total 32,162 33,443 

McCulloch says the population of Curacoa in 18 15 
was nearly 13,000 ; of whom 6,000 were slaves, 4,000 
free colored persons, and 2,780 were whites. 



Sec. 5. The Danish Islands. 

No great importance can be attached to the three 
small islands owned by the Danes in the West Indies — 
except to the fine harbors in them. 

Santa Cruz lies south-easterly from Porto Rico, is 20 
miles long, 5 broad, and has an area of 81 square miles. 
Murray states the population in 1830 at 34,000; of 
whom 2,500 were whites, 1,200 free colored, and about 
30,000 slaves. 

St. Thomas is about 30 miles east of Porto Rico, and 
nearly north of Santa Cruz. It has an area of only 
24 square miles, equal to two-thirds of a western town- 
ship. The surface is elevated and rough, sandy, not 
very fertile ; and only about 2,500 acres are said to be 
under cultivation. Charlotte Amalie, the capital of the 
Island, has an excellent harbor, which is said to be 
visited by about 3,000 vessels annually. The United 
States having negotiated a treaty for the purchase of 
the island, that fine and capacious harbor will be of great 
importance to our national vessels, as a place of rendez- 
vous and security, and to obtain supplies and refit — as 
well as to our merchant marine. 

St. John's, another island of the same group, Mur- 
ray says, is very small, and only noted for its excellent 
harbor. 

The population of these islands in 1858 is stated in 
the Almanach de Gotha for 1 862 as follows : 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 491 

Santa Cruz, 22,862 ) Total, 

St. Thomas, 12,560 > 37,137 

St. John's, 1,715 ) 

The New American Cyclopaedia states the population 
of Santa Cruz at 25,60x3. It would seem that the 
population of that island is declining ; though it is still 
very dense. 

Sec. 6. St. Bartholomew. 

St. Bartholomew is the only one of the West India 
Islands which belongs to Sweden, to which it was ceded 
by France in 1784. It lies east of Santa Cruz, near St. 
Martin, and has an area of about 35 square miles. The 
soil is said to be fertile, but the island is badly supplied 
with water. There is a good harbor on the west side 
of the island, which renders it valuable to a maritime 
nation. The population is stated in the Almanach de 
Gotha for 1867, at 2,800. 

Sec. 7. Summary of the History of the Island of St. 
Domingo, or Hayti. 

The island generally known as St. Domingo, but re- 
cently called Hayti, was discovered by Christopher Co- 
lumbus, December 5th, 1492, and by him named His- 
paniola (New Spain). The eastern part was colonized 
by the Spaniards. 

The native inhabitants, at the time of the discovery, 
have been estimated at 1,000,000 ; but that estimate was 
a wild conjecture ; and like most of the estimates of the 
Indian population of America, an exaggeration of from 
five to ten fold. The natives melted away rapidly in 
contests and wars with the Spaniards, and under the 
forced labor system and cruelties of the Spanish colon- 
ists ; and negro slaves were imported and substituted as 
laborers. 

The French established themselves in the western 
part of the island about the year 1665, and planted a 
colony, which soon became the most flourishing colony 



492 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

in the West Indies. The French colony occupied about 
10,730 square miles, and the Spanish colony about 
17,500 square miles — embracing all the eastern part of 
the island. The French colony contained in 1790, 
about 550,000 inhabitants, divided as follows : 

Whites, nearly 3 1,000 

Free Mulattoes, about 24,000 

Free Blacks, about 25,000 

Negro Slaves, about 460,000 

Indians, perhaps 10,000 

Total 5 50,000 

The Free Mulattoes were from one-eighth to seven- 
eighths white. The Spanish colony at the same time did 
not contain more than 140,000 inhabitants. The Free col- 
ored men in the French colony, were mostly sons or de- 
scendants of French planters ; many of them were well 
educated, some of them had been educated in France, and 
inherited large estates ; and yet all political privileges, the 
right to vote as well as to hold office, was denied them. 

The French revolution, the proceedings of the National 
Assembly of France, the annihilation of all the powers 
and privileges of the nobility of France, and the forma- 
tion of a constitution, all excited a profound sensation 
among the free colored men, and led them to discuss the 
subject of their rights, to expect some reform in the 
colony, and to ask that the right to vote and hold office 
be extended to them. 

On the 8th of March, 1790, the Constituent Assembly 
of France made a decree authorizing the colony to make 
known its wishes upon the subject of a constitution, 
through a colonial assembly, to be elected by the citizens. 
The free mulattoes claimed a right to vote for members 
for that assembly, which was denied by the whites, 
and by the colonial government. Discussion was thus 
excited between the whites and the free colored men, 
which soon led to acts of violence and cruelty on the 
part of the whites, and to an insurrection by Col. Oge, 
and about three hundred other mulattoes in October, 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 493 

1790. The insurrection was soon suppressed by the 
colonial government, Col. Oge was broken upon the 
wheel with atrocious cruelty, and a large number of the 
leaders were executed. 

The cruelties of the whites and the gross abuses of 
the colonial government, induced the Constituent As- 
sembly of France to make a decree on the 15th of May, 

1 79 1, by which political powers and privileges and equal 
rights with the whites were conferred on all colored per- 
sons that were born free. The whites resisted the exe- 
cution of that decree, and the free colored men claimed 
the benefit of it ; dissensions and contests arose be- 
tween them, and both parties became greatly excited 
and prepared for civil war. 

The discussions and dissensions among the whites 
and free colored men, very soon excited the attention of 
the most intelligent and thoughtful portion of the slaves ; 
who began to think the time had come to assert their 
rights — to destroy the white population, and establish a 
government of their own. With such views, they 
planned and arranged a great insurrection to be exe- 
cuted on the 2 2d of August, 1791. The plan was com- 
municated to the slaves on most of the plantations in 
the colony ; the secret was kept ; the insurrection took 
place on the night indicated ; and a large part of the 
colony devastated by fire and sword. The dwellings of 
the planters and other buildings and improvements 
on about 1,200 coffee plantations, and 200 sugar planta- 
tions, were burned and destroyed ; and thousands of 
the whites, including men, women, and children, were 
slaughtered with savage ferocity. 

Such was the commencement of a civil war between 
the negro slaves on the one side, and the planters and 
the colonial government on the other ; which raged for 
a series of years ; and in which the colored planters and 
the mulattoes very generally acted with the whites. 

On the 24th of Sept. 1791, the Constituent Assembly 
modified their decree of May 15th, and sent over three 
commissioners and three thousand troops to quell the 
disturbance. But all to no purpose ; the civil war went 
on, and the insurrection extended to all parts of the col- 



494 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

ony. A new set of commissioners were sent over from 
France, early in 1793, who, on the 3d of June in that 
year, declared the emancipation of all the slaves who 
should enrol themselves under the standard of the Re- 
public : and slavery was finally abolished by the French 
government early in 1794. Many of the mulattoes joined 
the insurgents, and the blacks finally got the control of 
the colonial government, — which became the most violent 
persecutors of the whites, until the most of them were 
driven out of the colony. 

The British invaded the country early in 1794, took 
Port au Prince and several other towns and fortresses, 
and prosecuted the war for purposes of conquest, for 
over three years, when they were finally repulsed by 
Toussaint, Rigaud, and their fellow patriots in arms, in 
1797. 

At the commencement of the civil war, the mulattoes 
and colored planters took part with the whites, against 
the slaves. After the abolition of slavery the mulattoes 
generally joined with the negroes in repulsing the Brit- 
ish invasion ; but there was always more or less distrust 
between the two classes. Toussaint, the favorite leader 
of the negroes, and Rigaud, the leader of the mulattoes, 
became rivals, and both were ambitious for power. Soon 
after the troubles and dangers of foreign invasion had 
ceased, the ambition, distrust, and calumnies of those 
rival chiefs and their followers, led to civil war, which 
was long prosecuted with almost savage fury, until Ri- 
gaud and the mulatto party were overcome. Toussaint 
then behaved magnanimously, and published a general 
amnesty. 

The Spanish part of the island having been ceded by 
Spain to France in 1795, Toussaint marched an army 
into it, and the whole island submitted to his authority 
the latter part of the year 1800 ; and he restored peace, 
commerce, and prosperity. 

Early in the year 1801, a constitution was formed by 
nine commissioners appointed by Toussaint — wherein 
he was named and appointed governor for life ; and the 
same was approved by him. That Napoleonic mode of 
doing the thing indicates the abject condition of the 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 495 

people, and the military and despotic character of the 
government established. 

Napoleon Bonaparte and the legislature of France, 
having determined to restore slavery in St. Domingo, 
sent a large fleet of fifty-six ships of war, and an army 
of about 35,000 men, under Gen. Le Clerc, to carry 
their purposes into effect. In that army there were sev- 
eral mulatto chiefs, natives of St. Domingo, who after- 
wards distinguished themselves, including Gen. Rigaud ; 
Petion, who was afterwards governor of a portion of the 
island ; and Boyer, who became President of the Haytien 
Republic. Their participation showed their hostile feel- 
ings towards the negroes. 

That army landed in St. Domingo in February, 1802 ; 
they were resisted by the negro chiefs and the people ; 
several battles were fought, in which the French were 
generally successful, though they sustained great losses. 
In May there was a truce of hostilities. Christophe, 
Dessalines, and most of the negro chiefs, submitted. 
Toussaint retired to his farm, and there was a prospect 
of a general pacification. During the truce, Toussaint 
was treacherously seized and sent as a prisoner to France, 
where he died in prison. 

The cruelty of the French towards the blacks of Gua- 
daloupe, and the treachery and treatment of Toussaint, 
incited another insurrection, in October of the same 
year, and the war was renewed under Dessalines and 
other leaders. The yellow fever, of which Gen. Le 
Clerc died, and other diseases of the climate, swept off 
great numbers, and greatly reduced the French army. 
Rochambeau succeeded to the command of the French, 
and practised great harshness and cruelty towards some 
of the mulattoes. At first and for several months, the 
mulattoes generally aided the French ; but the conduct 
of the French, and particularly of Rochambeau, towards 
them, eventually so exasperated them, that they joined 
the insurgents. Rochambeau was driven into Capetown, 
and confined there by the blacks on the land side, and a 
British fleet at sea, until he surrendered in November, 
1803 ; and thus the expedition ended. 



496 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

Sec. 8. History of the Isla?id continued. The Republic 
of Hayti. 

In January, 1804, the Island was declared independ- 
ent, called the Republic of Hayti, and Dessalines was 
elected by the army Governor-General for life. In Octo- 
ber of the same year, he assumed the title of Jacques L, 
Emperor of Hayti. He was a native of Africa, but 
brought to St. Domingo when young, and sold as a slave. 
He was uneducated, had terrible passions, much shrewd- 
ness and cunning, great energy of character, and was a 
monster of vice and cruelty — delighting in slaughter. 
In March, 1804, he issued a proclamation for the massacre 
of all the whites. His criLelties soon alarmed all classes, 
caused a conspiracy against him, incited an insurrection, 
and he was assassinated in October, 1 806. 

During the reign of Dessalines, Christophe was Gene- 
ral-in-Chief of the army; and in 1807 he was elected 
President for life. Following the example of Napoleon, 
he caused himself to be crowned King of Hayti, in 
1811. 

The eastern portion of the Island resisted the author- 
ity of both Dessalines and Christophe, and the Spaniards 
gained control of it. The people of Port au Prince and 
the south-western portion of the island, where the mulat- 
toes were numerous, preferred Petion, and elected him 
Governor in June, 1807. Petion was the son of a 
French planter by a free mulatto woman, was well educa- 
ted, studied at the military academy in Paris, and was an 
intellectual and amiable man. When Toussaint began 
to persecute the whites and the mulattoes, and the civil 
war between the blacks and the mulattoes commenced in 
1798, he and Boyer both took part with the latter, until 
they were compelled to flee to France. They returned 
with General Le Clerc in 1802. Christophe commenced 
and prosecuted a civil war against Petion and the Re- 
public he governed, for a series of years with various suc- 
cess ; but at length he agreed on a suspension of hostil- 
ities, and committed suicide in 1820. 

Petion died in 1 8 1 8 ; and Boyer, a mulatto Gene- 
ral, who had served under him, was elected Presi- 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 497 

dent of the Republic ; and after the death of Christophe, 
the Empire was added to the Republic. In 1822 Boyer 
sent an army to the Spanish part of the island, which 
submitted to his authority ; and the whole island came 
under one government. 

Fearing a French invasion and a French squadron, 
then in the harbor of Port au Prince, Boyer negotiated a 
treaty with France in 1825, by which the independence 
of the island was acknowledged, and he agreed to pay 
nearly $30,000,000 indemnity to the white planters, who 
had lost their estates. The taxes rendered necessary to 
pay the interest on so large a debt, greatly oppressed and 
impoverished the people ; several insurrections were in- 
cited, which were suppressed by force and slaughter ; 
but an insurrection was raised in 1842, which overturned 
the administration of Boyer, and he fled to the Island of 
Jamaica. 

General Riviere, the leader of the last insurrection 
against Boyer, became his successor. 

In July, 1844, the inhabitants of the Spanish part of 
the Island revolted, and established the Dominican Re- 
public. Riviere marched against them with a large army 
was defeated, disgraced, and banished from Hayti. 
General Gurrier was then elected President, and died 
in less than a year. General Pierrot succeeded to the 
Presidency ; but he was soon overthrown by a military 
insurrection, and the insurgents elected General Riche 
his successor. Under his administration, a new consti- 
tution was framed and adopted in November, 1846, and a 
Senate established. He died in 1847, an d Faustin Sou- 
louque was elected by the Senate, his successor. In Au- 
gust, 1849, Soulouque caused himself to be crowned Em- 
peror of Hayti, under the name of Faustin I. Soulouque 
changed the constitution, established a nobility, and be- 
came prodigal, despotic, and tyrannical. In December, 
1858, General Fabre Jeffrard raised the standard of revolt ; 
the army and the people sustained him ; Soulouque made 
his escape from the island ; the republic of Hayti was 
again proclaimed, and Jeffrard assumed the title of 
President. 

There were several unsuccessful insurrections during 



49§ THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

the administration of Jeffrard. In September, 1859, a 
band of conspirators failed in their attempt to assassinate 
him ; but in shooting into his house, they killed his 
daughter. In December, 1864, he issued his proclama- 
tion to the people, in which he said, the three insurrections 
that had broken out during the previous six months, had all 
been quelled, and order restored. A formidable insur- 
rection broke out in May, 1865, and a provisional gov- 
ernment was formed, at the head of which was General 
Salnave. The insurgents took Cape Haytien, Gonaives, 
and St. Mary's, and several forts, and held out until No- 
vember before they were subdued, and General Salnave 
then made his escape. 

On the 22d of February, 1867, another terrible insur- 
rection broke out in Hayti, which was quelled by Jeffrard 
with grapeshot. The streets of Port au Prince were 
strewn with corpses ; and the leader of the insurgents, 
Prospero Elie, and his son, were killed. The second, 
attempt, a few days after, made at St. Marc, was success- 
ful. President Jeffrard, finding public feeling strong 
against him, sent in his resignation, and on the 13th of 
March embarked with his family on board a French man- 
of-war, for Jamaica. A provisional government was 
then formed, the constitution was amended, chano-ins; the 
Presidential term to four years instead of for life. Gene- 
ral Salnave, having arrived on the 25th of March, was 
made provisional President. On the 14th of June, 1867, 
an election for President was held, and General Salnave 
was elected for the term of four years. But there is vio- 
lent opposition to him, the people are generally agitated, 
some are in a state of insurrection, and there is much 
confusion, anarchy, and alarm. 

Sec. 9. The Dominican Republic. 

The Dominican Republic having been established in 
the Spanish part of the Island in 1844, and a constitu- 
tion adopted, Gen. Santana, the Liberator, was elected 
President in 1845 f° r f° ur years. He maintained the 
independence of the Republic, and Jimenes was elected 
his successor in 1849. Jimenes conspired with Sou- 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 499 

louque, who invaded the Republic with an army of Hay- 
tiens and defeated the Dominicans in several skirmishes. 
In this extremity Gen. Santana was made dictator. He 
attacked and defeated the Haytiens, and the war of in- 
vasion soon terminated. Jimenes having fled, Gen. 
Baez was elected President ; and Gen. Santana was 
elected his successor in 1853. In 1857 Baez was the 
clerical candidate, and was again elected President, in 
opposition to Gen. Santana. But there being a large and 
dissatisfied party, comprising the most of the military, 
opposed to Baez, an insurrection was incited against him 
by Santana and his friends, in September 1857; and 
Baez was driven from the Presidency and Santana put 
in his place. 

Finally proving treacherous, Santana sold and ceded 
the Republic to Spain in 1861, and the Queen and Cor- 
tes sent over a military force and took possession of it, 
called it again San Domingo, invaded Hayti, and made 
efforts, though without success, to subject Hayti also to 
the government of Spain. 

In February, 1863, an insurrection broke out against 
the Spanish Government of San Domingo, which was 
soon put down and tranquillity restored. But in March, 
the insurrection broke out again on a much larger scale ; 
the insurgents got the control of the greatest part of 
the country ; established a provisional government for 
the Dominican Republic, and made Gen. Salcedo Presi- 
dent. 

When Gen. Salcedo showed an inclination to nego- 
tiate for terms of submission, he was deposed in 1864, 
and Gen. Gaspar Polanco was put in his place — who 
published a proclamation to the people — appealing to 
their patriotism to volunteer to resist the Spaniards. 

In December of the same year, the patriot General 
Cabral obtained a great victory over the Spaniards, and 
in 1865 the Spanish Government abandoned San Do- 
mingo, finding that it was impossible to subdue the pa- 
triots. 

In January, 1865, the administration of Gen. Polanco 
was overthrown, and in March Gen. Pimentel was elected 
Provisional President of the Republic. In August of 



500 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

the same year, a new pronunciamiento was made in the 
city of San Domingo, the administration of Pimentel 
was repudiated, and Gen. Cabral was declared Protector 
of the Republic. Many of the important towns acceded 
to the new programme, and thereupon Gen. Pimentel 
resigned, and General Cabral was declared Provisional 
President until an election could be held, in accordance 
with the Constitution. In December, 1865, Gen. Baez 
was again elected President, and gave Generals Cabral 
and Pimentel seats in his cabinet. 

In June, 1866, another revolution was commenced, un- 
der the leadership of Gen. Cabral. President Baez fled 
to the island of St. Thomas, and Gen. Cabral was 
elected President in September of that year. 

The opponents of Cabral incited an insurrection 
against his government ; several battles have been 
fought with various success, and in December, 1867, the 
insurgents in the north part of the Republic issued a 
pronunciamiento, proclaiming Baez President ; and now 
(at the close of the year 1867) civil war exists in each 
of the Negro Republics of that unfortunate island. In 
fact, a state of anarchy and civil war seems to be the 
normal condition of these negro populations. 

Sec. 10. Comments on the History of St. Domingo. 

Such is a brief summary of the sad but suggestive 
history of the French and Spanish colonies planted 
upon the island of St. Domingo, and of the Haytien and 
Dominican Republics which succeeded them. They have 
long been the scenes of a succession of insurrections 
and revolutions, civil wars and devastations, massacres 
and assassinations. Their history shows the impulsive 
character and want of stability of the people, and is full 
of political instruction. It will excite many questions in 
the minds of thoughtful readers. 

The question may be asked, why have the people been 
so disorderly, and ready to follow any ambitious military 
chieftain ? And why have insurrections, revolutions, and 
civil wars become so frequent and numerous ? What are 
the causes which have produced such results ? Some 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 501 

Protestants, full of prejudices against the Catholics, 
charge the Catholic priesthood and the want of pure re- 
ligion as the cause of nearly all the political troubles ; 
when the truth is, the influence of the Catholic Church 
and Priesthood is conservative and quieting, generally 
counselling submission to the administration in power, 
and very rarely encouraging revolutions, or a revolution- 
ary spirit, except when deemed necessary to protect the 
property or power of the Church. 

Protestantism is much more progressive in its spirit 
than Catholicism — more ambitious to propagate its prin- 
ciples and doctrines, and to promote political liberty and 
the material welfare of the people ; and therefore more 
revolutionary in its tendencies. Violent passions, unre- 
strained by pure religion, may be regarded as the prin- 
cipal cause of such disorders ; and the question may 
well be asked — is it possible to maintain Christianity in 
its purity, in the torrid zone — under the influence of a 
climate which excites the sensual appetites and passions 
to their utmost intensity, and produces a lassitude which 
leaves the intellect feeble and almost inert ? In such a 
climate, sensation, and not reflection, becomes the chief 
stimulant to action. 

The antagonism and rivalship, jealousies and strifes, 
between different races of men, are regarded by many as 
the principal cause of the disorders ; but that cause has 
been greatly exaggerated. The disorders continued as 
violent, and the insurrections as frequent, in Hayti, after 
the white race had been nearly all expelled, as before ; 
and they have been the same since the civil war between 
the blacks and mulattoes resulted in the defeat and the 
utter overthrow of the latter as a party. 

The mixed races are so few compared with the blacks, 
that they have not formed a distinct class or party by 
themselves, for half a century, — and during that period 
several mulatto chiefs have been elected to the Pres- 
idency, which indicates that the rivalships and ill-feeling 
between the blacks and the mixed breeds, have long 
since ceased. 

The mulattoes are very generally property holders — 
and many of them are large landed proprietors — well 



502 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

educated ; having inherited both property and talents 
from white ancestors. The mixed races are very gen- 
erally superior, both in education and natural intellect, 
to the blacks ; and intellect finds its level among them 
in military affairs, if in nothing else. The people are 
capable of appreciating only military achievements ; and 
hence political affairs are mostly controlled by successful 
military men. 

It seems to me impossible to assign any efficient cause 
for the numerous insurrections and revolutions, both in 
Hayti and the Dominican Republic, except the ignorance 
and inferiority of intellect of the masses of the people. 
Their inferiority of intellect has been caused by a hot 
climate, operating during ages and centuries, producing 
the small and inferior frontal and upper portions of the 
brain of the negroes, and of the Indians also. This 
cause has operated some also upon the descendants of 
the French and Spaniards, who settled on the island 
from one to two or more centuries since. They have 
degenerated in intellect and energy of character, from 
generation to generation. The schools and education 
cannot supply a defect of intellect — arising from defi- 
ciency in size, and imperfection in the organization of the 
brain. 

The organs of sense of the negro race are generally 
fully developed ; and hence their perceptive faculties are 
often quick and active, and negro children frequently 
exhibit great precocity of mind. But the negro mind 
seems to come to maturity at the age of fifteen or 
eighteen, and seldom expands and improves much after 
that period of life. The masses of the people of San 
Domingo, in the Dominican Republic, as well as in Hay- 
ti, being of African descent, have neither intelligence 
nor natural intellect sufficient to fit them for political ac- 
tion and self-government — and such deficiencies, together 
with the ambition, selfishness, and impulsive character of 
their military men and leaders, constitute the principal 
cause of their political troubles, frequent insurrections, 
and civil wars. With more intelligence, they have the 
same characteristics, propensities and vices, as the Ne- 
groes of Africa. 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 503 

Sec. 11. The Government of Hayti. 

The government of Hayti, ever since the overthrow of 
the colonial government of France, in the time of Tous- 
saint, has been a military monarchy, nearly absolute — 
the Governor or President having been in every instance 
a successful General, elevated to power in most cases by 
a successful revolution, and chosen for life by his own 
followers. 

The Constitution framed and adopted in 1846, made 
by the administration of General Riche, was revived by 
General JefTrard in 1859, an< i with some amendments, it 
is still in force. It is the best and most liberal constitu- 
tion which that people have ever had ; and probably the 
best and most liberal which that or almost any people in 
the torrid zone are fitted for, or are capable of maintain- 
ing with order and tranquillity ; and yet there is not a 
particle of political power vested in the illiterate masses 
of the people, who are neither landed proprietors, busi- 
ness men, nor office-holders. The Constitution, until 
amended in March, 1867, declared that the President of 
Hayti is elected for life. It declares the qualifications 
required, and the powers he shall exercise ; but it does 
not prescribe the mode of the election, nor by whom he 
shall be elected. It seems to imply that he shall dictate 
the mode of his own election by the sword and the power 
of the military — as has been the general custom for 
nearly three-fourths of a century. 

Nearly all the effective powers of the government are 
vested in the President, who is charged with the execu- 
tive duties ; appoints all civil and military officers, and 
removes them at will ; commands the army and navy ; 
makes war, peace, and treaties, with the sanction of the 
Seriate ; proposes laws to the two Chambers to be enact- 
ed by them ; and exercises a veto power nearly absolute 
over them all. 

The legislative power is vested in a Chamber of Depu- 
ties of about fifty members, and a Senate of thirty-six 
members (three for each department). The Deputies are 
elected for five years by electoral colleges in the several 
districts, composed of three electors, chosen by each 



504 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

commune. The Senators are elected by the Chamber of 
Deputies for nine years, on the nomination of the Presi- 
dent. They are divided into three classes — one class be- 
ing elected every three years. The President makes a 
list containing the names of three persons for each Sena- 
tor to be elected — from which general list the Chamber 
of Deputies elect by ballot the required number of 
Senators. 

Citizenship is confined to negroes, Indians, mulattoes, 
and the mixed races. All white persons are excluded 
from citizenship, from voting, holding office, or holding 
real estate. Every citizen above the age of twenty-one 
years has a right to vote in the primary assemblies of the 
communes for electors — if he be a landed proprietor, if 
he have the cultivation of a farm, or if he practise a 
profession, fill a public office, or follow any business 
defined by the electoral laws. Mechanics, laborers, ser- 
vants, and all persons who are in the employ of others, 
are excluded from the elective franchise, unless they are 
landed proprietors. The masses of the negroes are ex- 
cluded from voting even for the electors at the com- 
munal assemblies— the elective franchise being more 
limited and illiberal than it is in England — where it is 
extended to householders, who rent tenements of a cer- 
tain annual value. 

Such is the character of the government of Hayti ; 
which is probably the most liberal which the negro is 
fitted for in that climate — after he has enjoyed, during 
nearly three-fourths of a century, all the freedom his 
ignorance and indolence will admit of. 

It affords an instructive lesson to the people of the 
United States, in relation to the freedmen of the South- 
ern States ; and yet the latter, having long enjoyed the 
advantages of a milder climate, the arts of a more intelli- 
gent people, and the operations of a better system of 
government, are superior to the negroes of Hayti, and 
more assimilated in their intellectual and moral charac- 
ter, to the white population of our country. 

The people of the United States should study care- 
fully the history of Hayti, and of the British West 
Indies — since the era of emancipation. The devotees of 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 505 

negro suffrage in our country, can learn a useful lesson 
from the history ahd constitution of Hayti ; and from the 
manner in which the poor and illiterate negroes of Hayti, 
who are not landed proprietors, have been treated by 
their educated and more fortunate fellow-citizens, of the 
same race and color with themselves. It may well be 
doubted if it be possible to maintain a republican form 
of government, with universal suffrage, and to preserve 
order and tranquillity anywhere in the torrid zone — or in 
any climate — if a large proportion of the voters be of 
African descent. 



Sec. 12, Schools and Education. 

President Jeffrard, in his message to the Legislative 
Chambers of Hayti in 1865, spoke of a small theological 
school in Port au Prince, and two private seminaries in 
the Republic, having about 300 scholars, and says their 
public schools had been increased eighteen during the 
year ; that the number of scholars in them had increased 
from 14,600 to 15,697, and that they had eighteen stu- 
dents in the colleges of Paris and Versailles, and twenty 
in a theological college. Such are the limited means of 
education in Hayti — which has a population of about 
600,000, at least 25 per cent, of whom (or 150,000) are 
children between the ages of five and fifteen years, and 
should be in school. 16,000 out of 150,000 children 
attend school — or about one in nine or ten. The chil- 
dren of the wealthy, and a few of those of the middling 
classes are educated — including a sufficient number to 
fill the professions and business employments — leaving 
the laboring classes generally uneducated. 



Sec. 13. Religion and Morals. 

The Roman Catholic is the established religion of 
Hayti ; but other sects are tolerated. Much property 
belonging to the church and the monasteries was appro- 
priated by the government, and the monasteries were 
suppressed. The church and the clergy are poor, and 
without much influence ; and very little attention is paid 



506 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

to matters of religion. McCulloch says in his Universal 
Gazetteer: " Morals are universally disregarded ; the 
private habits of the people are characterized chiefly by 
filth and laziness ; marriage is scarcely thought of, and 
the ties consequent on it have not the shadow of an ex- 
istence." " Justice is said to be very corrupt and the 
police inefficient, except in enforcing the Code Rural." 

Sec. 14. Industry and the System of Coercive Labor. 

Prior to the insurrection of 1789, the production of 
sugar in French St. Domingo was enormous ; the pro- 
duction of coffee was very large ; and cotton was also 
produced in considerable quantities. Since the abolition 
of slavery, very little sugar has been produced, not half 
as much coffee as formerly, and much less cotton. More 
attention has been given to the cultivation of vegetables, 
Indian-corn, and tobacco, and cutting dye-woods. The 
imports of grain, meats and vegetables, have been much 
less. The aggregate productive industry of the Haytien 
Republic probably does not exceed half that of the old 
French colony of St. Domingo, prior to 1791. This is 
indicated by the exports at different periods. 

McCulloch says : "The famous Toussaint adopted 
coercive measures to restore agriculture ; and it is be- 
lieved idle to suppose that any other will be effective in such 
a country, to impel the negro to labor. By an edict issued 
in 1800, Toussaint obliged any Haytien not a proprietor 
of land (with a few exceptions), to hire himself as an 
agricultural laborer to some proprietor, without the power 
subsequently to withdraw himself from the service. The 
use of the whip was abolished ; but the sabre, the mus- 
ket and the bayonet, in the hands of a military police, 
were employed to keep the peasantry at work. 

"This compulsory system was followed by Dessalines, 
and by Christophe. Petion, on the contrary, abandoned the 
coercive plan ; and in consequence, while the north-west- 
ern part of the island had the appearance of industry and 
cultivation, the south-west displayed little more than oc- 
casional spots of culture." 

"Boyer, during the first few years of his rule, con- 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 507 

tinued the system of his predecessor, and the total value 
of the imports of the entire island amounted, in 1825, to 
no more than 5,793,758 dollars. The state of agriculture 
of that period was most deplorable ; every branch requir- 
ing systematic industry, had fallen into decay ; and the 
sugar plantations were almost annihilated. 

" At length Boyer adopted coercive measures, and in 
1826 promulgated his Code Rural, which is as stringent 
as that of any of his predecessors. It reads that every 
Haytien not employed in the civil or military service, in 
some manufacture, as a patented tradesman, or as a do- 
mestic servant, shall, under pain of imprisonment and 
hard labor, attach himself to some estate and employ 
himself in agricultural labor. He cannot quit the coun- 
try for the purpose of residing in any town or village ; 
nor venture off the estate without a licence ; and he dare 
not desist from labor during the hours specified. How- 
ever severe and little consistent with our idea of freedom, 
we have no doubt that some such system is absolutely 
indispensable ; but the misfortune is, that it acts only on 
the laborer, while it leaves the proprietor of a few acres 
or of one, to indulge in idleness and dissipation. This 
inconsistency is aggravated by the practice of the gov- 
ernment in making grants of small patches of land 
(ten or fifteen acres) to individuals, who are thereby 
emancipated from the onerous provisions of the Code 
Rural/' 

Such is the system of coercive labor in Republican 
Hayti — which seems to be necessary in that tropical 
climate. It is a system of " involuntary servitude " in- 
consistent with the amendment to the Constitution of 
the United States. A much less stringent system will 
answer in the milder climate and higher civilization of our 
cotton States ; and yet, stringent laws may be necessary 
to restrain vagrancy, and to compel laborers to fulfil their 
contracts. 



' Sec. 15. Exports aiid Population. 

Statement of the exports during each of the under- 
mentioned years : 



508 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

1789 1S36 

Sugar, lbs 141,089,831 16,169 

Coffee, lbs 76,835,219 37,662,674 

Cotton, lbs 7,004,274 I *°72,555 

Indigo, lbs . / 758,628 

Dye-woods, lbs 6,767,902 

Mahogany, feet 4,954,944 

The value of the exports has been stated as follows : 

francs. 

In 1789 171,544,666 

1836 23,033,000 

1859 25,087,000 

1862 43,39 6 > I 53 

The number of inhabitants of both Republics is uncer- 
tain ; that of Hayti being estimated at from 560,000 to 
700,000, and that of the Dominican Republic at 120,000 
to 200,000. The population is not much, if any, greater 
than it was in 1790 ; though the island is capable of sup- 
porting four times its present number of inhabitants. 

Such is the condition of the great Negro Republics of 
America. Their methods, laws and institutions, indus- 
trial arts, and manners and customs, religion and civiliza- 
tion, have all been borrowed from France and Spain ; 
but all of them have declined. Every element of civiliza- 
tion and progress tends to decline among such a people, 
in such a climate. The civilization of Hayti has been 
maintained at its present level, only by immigration from 
the United States, and sending some of their sons to 
France to be educated. 



Sec. 16. The Island of yamaica. 

Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in May, 1494, 
colonized by the Spanish in 1509, and captured by a 
British fleet in 1655, and has been held since the latter 
period as a British colony. It is 160 miles in length, 50 
miles in breadth in the central part, and has an area of 
about 6,400 square miles. 

The Blue Mountains run through the whole length of 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 509 

the island, from east to west, rising in some places to an 
elevation of 7,400 feet above the sea. On the north side 
the surface of the country rises gradually from the coast, 
by undulating hills, separated by spacious valleys, watered 
by numerous rivulets and brooks, and clothed with Pi- 
mento trees. On the south side the shore is skirted with 
rocks and abrupt cliffs, and the ranges of hills are steeper 
and less fertile. The climate being warm and moist, 
the country well watered with numerous living streams, 
and the soil generally good, the island is very produc- 
tive in tropical fruits and products. 

No complete census was ever taken of the population 
of Jamaica until 1844, but official estimates were made 
from time to time, from the number of tax-payers ; from 
which Dr. Morse states the population in 1787, and Mur- 
ray in 1824, as follows : 

1787 1824 

Whites 30,000 ) 

Free colored 1 1,400* ) " ' 6/ ' -> 

Slaves 250,000 . . . 322,42 1 

Total 291,400 . .. 359>573 

Number of inhabitants reported by the census of 1844, 
and that of May, 1861 : 

1844 1861 

Whites ,... 15,776 ... 13,816 

Mulattoes 68,529 



Blacks 293,128 



427,448 



Total 377>433 • • • 441,264 

Number in 1850 estimated at 400,000 

Showing an increase of nearly one per cent, annually ; or 
6 per cent, in six years, from 1844 to 1850, over 11^ per 
cent, in 11 years, from 1850 to 1861. The New Ameri- 
can Cyclopaedia says: "Between 1840 and 1856 about 
18,000 Coolies and other emigrants were brought to the isl- 
and, while in 1850 and 185 1 nearly 40,000 people died 
of cholera and small-pox." 

* Including 1,400 maroons, or runaway slaves. 



510 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

Slavery was abolished in 1834 ; and its effect upon the 
industry of the island was shown in the diminished exports. 

Statement of the average exports annually, during the 
undermentioned periods, before and after emancipation, 
of the following articles : 

Years. Sugar, hhds. Rum, punch. Ginger, lbs. Coffee, lbs. 

1821 to 1830. .. 101,000 36,300 1,860,000 21,800,000 

1 83 1 to 1834... 92,000 34,200 2,400,000 15,400,000 

1841 to 1850. .. 41,500 15,600 1,500,000 5,460,000 

1851 to 1857... 31,500 16,200 680,000 5,650,000 

The exports were valued as follows : 

For the year 1782 ^2,136,442 

1832 2,814,308 

1833 2,489,793 

1834 3,148,797 

1841 1,909,744 

" " 1842 2,231,112 

" " 1862. 1,113,441 

" " 1863 1,007,924 

While the white population has decreased, and the 
colored inhabitants have increased, the industry and the 
exports have greatly diminished, and would have de- 
creased still more, if a large number of Coolies and 
Chinese had not been introduced. They were brought 
there because the Negroes were indolent, and would not 
work very much. Less than one-fourth part of the lands 
susceptible of cultivation, are actually improved ; and 
numerous plantations are falling to decay, and large dis- 
tricts of country sinking into barbarism. The principal 
hope of reviving the industry of that and many of the 
islands, must depend upon immigrants from Hindostan 
and China. 

Political power, as well as civil rights and equality be- 
fore the law, including the elective franchise and eligi- 
bility to office, have been conferred upon the Negro and 
mixed races of Jamaica ; and yet they are restless, insub- 
ordinate, and disinclined to pay taxes or rents, or to sub- 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 5 1 1 

mit to the adjudication of the courts. In October, 1865, 
they raised an insurrection, sacrificed the lives of several 
public officers and volunteer militia-men called out to 
keep the peace, and burnt the' Court-House at Morant 
Bay. But the barbarous manner in which the insurrec- 
tion was put down, and the lives of many hundreds of 
the insurgents, and some of their innocent colored friends 
unnecessarily and cruelly sacrificed, reflects more discre- 
dit and disgrace upon the Governor and some of the 
whites, than it does upon the insurgent blacks. The 
conduct of the Court-Martial that tried, convicted, and 
sentenced Gordon to be executed, was a disgrace to hu- 
manity. The outrages of the blacks did not justify the 
still greater outrages of the whites. The unnecessary 
cruelty evinced cowardice as well as barbarity. 

In the year 1863, 600 refugees sought shelter in Jamai- 
ca, from the war raging in St. Domingo ; the most of 
them without any means of support. 

The islands of Grand Cayman and Little Cayman 
(says Murray) are inhabited only by a few hundred fish- 
ermen and pilots ; and may be considered as appendages 
to Jamaica. 

Turk's and Caicos Islands are also dependencies of Ja- 
maica. Their population in April, 1861, was as follows: 
Grand Turk, 2,265 > Salt Cay, 761 ; and Caicos, 1,346 ; 
total, 4,372. 



Sec. 17. Population of the British Islands. 

The population of the British islands, taken at different 
periods, from 1824 to 1831, was stated by Murray as 
follows : 

Whites. Free Colored. Slaves. Total. 

Anguilla 365 327 2,388 3,080 

Antigua. 1,370 3,020 29,537 33>9 2 7 

Barbadoes 15,029 4,326 81,500 100,855 

Dominica 791 4,077 15,392 20,260 

Grenada 2,154 2,450 23,604 28,208 

Carried forward. . .19,709 14,200 152,421 186,330 



512 THE WEST INDrA ISLANDS. 

Whites. Free Colored. Slaves. Total. 

Brought forward ... .19,709 14,200 152,421 186,330 

Jamaica* 15,000 22,152 322,451 359,603 

Montserrat 330 814 6,262 7,406 

Nevis 700 2,000 9,142 11,842 

St. Christopher 1,612 3,000 19,085 23,697 

St. Lucia 806 2,828 13,348 16,982 

St. Vincent 1,301 2,824 22,997 27,122 

Tobago 285 1,195 12,091 13,571 

Tortola & Virgin Isles 477 1,286 5,399 7,162 

Trinidad 3,683 16,302 23,776 43,761 

Bahamas 4,240 2,991 9,705 16,936 

Bermudas 4,181 1,068 4,371 9,620 

Total 52,324 70,660 601,048 724,032 

Statement of the area and population of the British 
islands, and their dependencies, in 1 851, and according 
to the reports of the census of 186 1 : 

Area, Population in 

Square Miles. 1851 1861 

Antigua and Barbuda 183 34>50of 3 6 ,4 X 2 

Barbadoes 166 135,939 152,727 

Dominica 291 23,000 25,665 

Grenada 133 32,418! 31,900 

Jamaica 6,400 400,000 441,264 

Caicos and Turk's Islands . . 3> 2 50 4,372 

Montserrat 47 7,8oof 7,645 

Nevis . . 50 io,20of 9,822 

St. Christopher and An- ) 103 

guilla f 35 23 ' 133 20 ' 741 

St. Lucia 250 24,085 26,705 

St. Vincent , 131 30,128 31,755 

Tobago 97 14,378 15,410 

Tortola and Virgin Isles .... 94 6,6oof 6,05 1 

Trinidad i>754 69.609 84,438 

Bahamas (19 islands) 3>522 27,5 19 35,287 

Bermudas 24 ii,ooof 11,700 

Total 13,280 853,559 941,895 

* The division between the white and free colored is mine. 

t These are estimates from the reports of the censuses of other years ; 
the statements as to other islands for 185 1, are as reported by the censuses 
of that year. 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 513 

There was an increase from 185 1 to 1861 of over 
88,000 ; but during that period about 60,000 emigrants 
were introduced, mostly from Hindostan and China — 
showing a domestic increase of only about 28,000, or 3 J 
per cent, in ten years. 

Sec. 18. Coolies, Chinese, and other immigrants. 

Great numbers of Coolies (laborers from Hindostan) 
and some immigrants from China, Madeira, and other 
places, have been sent to the British West India islands. 
The Companion to the British Almanac for i860, says 
there were sent to the West Indies, in 1858: 

From the East Indies (Coolies) 3,850 

From Madeira 1,664 

From St. Helena 281 

From Cape de Verd 53 

Total 5,848 

The total immigration of this character from 1848 to 
1858 had been 59,077 to the West Indies, and 126,781 
to Mauritius ; of which 125,785 had been from the 
East Indies. Many of the emigrants to Mauritius, and 
some to the West Indies, were Chinese. 

"In 1862, 2,032 immigrants (or Coolies) from Calcutta, 
were sent to Trinidad, of whom 71 died on the passage ; 
and 1,093 were embarked at Calcutta for Grenada, of 
whom 29 died on the passage." "In 1861, the impor- 
tation of Coolies (into St. Vincent) had been first 
commenced ; and of two ship-loads, containing upwards 
of 500 immigrants, received in that year, the report 
speaks favorably." 

In the island of Trinidad, "The number of immi- 
grants (says the British Almanac) under indenture at 
the end of the year 1864, was 9,966, of whom 9,787 
were Indians, from Hindostan, and 179 Chinese ; the 
number residing on estates, but not under indenture, 
was 5,977, of whom all but three Chinese were Indians ; 
and in an Orphan Asylum there were 60 Indian children ; 

22* 



514 TH E WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

a total of 16,003, among whom there had been 341 
deaths." 

From such facts my readers can learn how rapidly 
Hindoo and Chinese laborers are supplying the places 
of, and superseding negro laborers ; and the latter must 
be more industrious, diligent, and faithful as laborers 
than they generally are, or Asiatic laborers will take their 
places, and they will gradually die out and disappear. 

The aptitudes, instincts and proclivities of the Chinese 
and Hindoo laborers, all tend to industry, diligence and 
fidelity ; and we have reason to believe that the channels 
of thought in the brain, handed down from one genera- 
tion to another, are adapted to the same ends ; while 
those of the negro generally tend to indolence and frivo- 
lous amusements. 

Sec. 19. The Bahamas and the Bermuda Islands. 

The Bahamas lie north of Cuba and St. Domingo ; 
and form a chain of islands from the latter to the vicinity 
of Florida. They are about 500 in number ; only nine- 
teen of them inhabited, the others being small rocky 
islets. They were acquired by England in 1629. The 
seat of government is Nassau, in the island of New 
Providence. Area 3,522 miles. The population in 1839 
was 23,048 ; and in 1861, it had increased to 35,287, as 
reported by the census of that year — distributed as fol- 
lows : 

New Providence . 1 1,503 

Eleuthera 5,209 

Harbor Island i>994 

Spanish Wells 331 

St. Salvador 2,378 

Exuma 2,289 

Long Island 2,571 

Rum Cay 654 

Watling Island 480 

Crooked Island 627 

Ackiin Island 517 

Carried forward 28,553 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 515 

Brought forward 28,553 

Long Cay 470 

Ragged Island 272 

Inagua ' 994 

Andros Island 1,366 

Berry Islands 202 

Bimini 210 

Abaco 2,362 

Grand Bahama . . . . 358 

Deficiency in the details 500 

Total 35,287 

Total in 1851. 27,519 

The number of slaves, for which compensation was 
made in 1834, was 10,086. 

The Bermudas, or Somers Islands, form a group of 
small islands, lying about 600 miles east of South 
Carolina ; of which only five are of any importance, viz. : 
St. George, St. David, Long Island, Somerset, and Ire- 
land. The area of the inhabited islands is said to be 
12,424 acres, or nearly 20 square miles. Porter states 
the population in 1824 as follows : 

Males. Females. Total. 

Whites 1.897 2,75 1 4,648 

Free colored 312 410 722 

Slaves 2,620 2,622 5,242 

Total 4,829 5,783 10,612 

Total in 1861 1 1,700 

The climate is delightful ; and being very healthy, the 
islands are a resort for invalids. They do not belong to 
the West India group of islands ; but are described with 
them, for convenience only. They are very densely 
populated ; the population being about 600 to the square 
mile. 

Sec. 20. Barbadoes. 
The island of Barbadoes is only about 22 miles long, 



5l6 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 



and 14 broad, across the middle, — having an area of 166 
square miles, or 106,470 acres of land — nearly all of 
which is arable and fertile. It was settled by emigrants 
from England in 1624. Dr. Morse states the population 
in 1786, as follows : 

Whites 16,167 

Free Blacks and Mulattoes 838 

Negro Slaves 62, 1 1 5 

Total 79,120 

Total in 1829 (per Porter) 102,605 

Total in 185 1 (per census) 135,939 

Total in 1861 (per census) 152,727 

of whom 16,594 were white, 36,128 mixed or colored, 
and 100,005 were black. 

The number of white inhabitants has remained nearly 
stationary since 1 y86 ; while the black and colored pop- 
ulation has more than doubled. Barbadoes has the 
largest agricultural population of any island or country 
in the world, in proportion to its area — the number of 
inhabitants being more than 900 to the square mile, and 
yet they continue to increase. 

The exports have also increased ; and Barbadoes is 
perhaps the only British island in which they have in- 
creased since the era of emancipation, where Coolies 
have not been introduced. The value of the exports has 
been reported as follows : 

- 1832 ,£285,516 1834 ^624,685 

1841 4io>37i 1842 424,5 13 

1862 1,067,612 1863 981,142 

The N. Am. Cyclopaedia says, " About 40,000 acres are 
planted with sugar-cane ; and in 1852 the amount of 
sugar produced was 48,785 hhds., valued at $3,329,000." 

There are no waste lands, no mountain lands, and no 
great forests in Barbadoes ; and almost every acre is 
cultivated and made productive. The population is so 
dense that the supply of laborers exceeds the demand ; 






THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 517 

and as there are no hunting-grounds, and no wild fruits 
for the people to subsist upon, no public lands to squat 
upon, and no hiding-places for thieves, necessity compels 
the negro to labor, at a low compensation, whenever he 
can get work. This case furnishes one of many exam- 
ples, to show that the negro can and will work, when 
compelled by stern necessity, or by the rigid administra- 
tion of law. 

Sec. 21. Social Statistics, and Social Vices of the 
Islanders. 

In Jamaica, there were 393 schools in 1862, attended 
by 25,167 scholars. 

In Grenada, there were 25 schools in 1862, attended 
by 1,584 scholars. 

In Antigua, there were in 1862, only 4,381 pupils at- 
tending the public schools ; but there were many private 
schools, and 5,106 children attended Sunday-schools. 

In Tobago, there were 2,070 scholars attending school 
in 1863. 

In St. Lucia, there were 616 public schools in 1841, 
attended by 1,389 children ; of whom 938 attended Prot- 
estant, and 45 1 Roman Catholic schools. 

In Montserrat there are no public schools ; but in 1861 
there were 14 private schools, with 923 pupils. The 
records for 1863 show, for a population of nearly 8,000, 
only 31 marriages, 313 births, of which 190 were illegiti- 
mate, and 158 deaths. 

In St. Christopher, there were 22 public schools in 
1863, with an average attendance of 1,396 scholars. The 
records for the year 1863, show 949 deaths and 1,211 
births. Of the births 120 were white, 202 colored (or 
mixed breeds), and 889 black ; and of the whole number, 
588, or nearly 07te-half were illegitimate. 

The foregoing information is from the British Almanac, 
and may be relied upon as correct. The proportion of 
illegitimate births is about the same in all the islands as 
it is in St. Christopher and Montserrat ; it is no less in 
the Protestant islands than it is among the Catholics. 
The cause seems to exist in the heat of the climate. 



5 18 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

Chastity seems to be almost impossible in such a climate ; 
and particularly among persons of African descent. 

Prof. David Christy, in his work on Pulpit Politics, p. 
149, quotes from The American Missionary for July, 1865, 
in relation to the people of Jamaica, as follows, viz. : " A 
man may be a drunkard, a liar, a Sabbath-breaker, a pro- 
fane man, a fornicator, a7i adulterer, and such like, and be 
known to be such, and go to chapel and hold up his head 
there, and feel no disgrace from those things, because they 
are so common as to create a public sentiment in his 
favor." 

From the work of Mr. Wm. G. Sewell, who went out 
to the West Indies a few years since, as a correspondent 
of the New York Times, Mr. Christy quotes the fol- 
lowing of Barbadoes, viz. : " Among their other vices, 
immorality and promiscuous intercourse of the sexes are 
almost universal. From the last census, it appears that 
more than half of the cJiildren born in Barbadoes are 
illegitimate." Again he says, " No person, male or female, 
having the slightest taint of African blood, is admitted 
to white society. . . . The amalgamation of the two races 
is, nevertheless, very general, and illicit intercourse is 
sanctioned, or at least winked at, by a society which 
utterly condemns and abhors a marriage between two 
people of different colors. . . . The amalgamation of 
the African and Anglo-Saxon, and the exclusiveness 
of the latter, have combined to build up the half caste, 
and make them a distinct people — a people neither 
African nor European, but more properly West In- 
dians." 

Again, Mr. Sewell says, " The amalgamation of the 
European and African races is even more general in 
Trinidad than in Barbadoes ; and though marriages be- 
tween whites and people of color is not opposed here 
with anything like the feeling it meets with in Barbadian 
society, yet I find that in Port-of-Spain, the ratio of 
births is 100 legitimate to 136 illegitimate — an exhibition 
of morality considerably below that of Havana." 

Speaking of Kingston, in Jamaica, he says, " The in- 
habitants, taken en masse, are steeped in immorality ; 
promiscuous intercourse of the sexes is the rule ; illegiti- 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 519 

macy exceeds legitimacy ; abortion and infanticide are not 
unknown? 

Such is the character for chastity of the people of the 
West Indies. It compares pretty well with that of the 
Sandwich Islanders, and also with that of the negroes of 
Tropical Africa;. The laws do not allow polygamy ; 
else it would probably have prevailed there. Such is the 
state of society in the finest tropical regions of the 
world, under Anglo-Saxon rule, Christian influences, and 
Protestant institutions, with many educational advantages, 
and among a generation of people, but few of whom have 
ever been slaves. 

Sec. 22. — Effects and Errors of West Indiari Emanci- 
pation. 

The emancipated slaves, and all the colored people of 
the British West Indies, have had the advantages of 
freedom and self-government, and of civil and political 
equality with the whites, so far as the laws can confer it, 
for more than thirty years ; and they have not only en- 
joyed the elective franchise, but also the labors of Chris- 
tian missionaries, the advantages of schools and Chris- 
tianity ; newspapers, and many other elements of civil- 
ization ; and the only effect has been to encourage idle- 
ness and dissipation, and to depress the whites, without 
benefiting one-tenth part, and perhaps not one-twentieth 
part of the colored people ; and very many of them are 
much worse off than they were in the condition of slaves. 

Society, in all the British islands, is shockingly demor- 
alized ; indolence, frivolous amusements, and licentious- 
ness, reign triumphant ; industry and enterprise are 
paralyzed in most of the islands ; everything is retro- 
grading, except the business of getting and raising 
illegitimate children ; and it appears now as if nothing 
but Asiatic laborers could save the islands from gradu- 
ally sinking into barbarism. 

British emancipation in the West Indies has proved a 
sad failure, and sorely disappointed the expectations of 
its friends — principally through a mistaken policy, adopted 
by reason of false ideas of the natural equality of different 



520 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

races of men. The British government and people have 
committed no such mistake in relation to the nations of 
Hindostan. If they had, their East Indian possessions 
would have been of very little value to them. 

The mistake in relation to the freedmen of the West 
Indies, was in recognizing their equality with the whites ; 
in relinquishing governmental control and guardianship 
over them ; and in conferring the elective franchise on 
the whole mass of adult males. If they had limited the 
elective franchise to persons having a few hundred dol- 
lars' worth of taxable property ; passed a laboring code 
of laws, similar to the Rural Code of Hayti, somewhat 
modified, to compel idle persons to make annual con- 
tracts for their services, and to labor faithfully for their 
employers ; passed rigid vagrant laws, to bind out va- 
grants to compulsory service for a definite period, and 
provided by law for punishing nearly all crimes and 
offences (except murder and arson), by binding convicts 
out to compulsory labor for periods from three or six 
months to as many years, according to the grade of the 
offence, the condition of the colored people of these 
islands would have been immensely better at this day 
than it is now. 

Such a system would induce industry and give the 
colored men the wages and fruits of their own labor, and 
all the liberty which is consistent with their own wel- 
fare in that tropical climate. 

Sec. 23. Our Freedmen cornpared with those of the West 

Indies. 

The freedmen of our country are in nearly the same 
condition as the colored people of Hayti and the British 
West Indies were thirty years since. The only material 
difference between them has been produced by differ- 
ences of climate. 

The climate of our Southern States being more tem- 
perate than that of the West Indies, better adapted to 
the development of intellect and of moral sense, and to 
the encouragement of industry, there is a better pros- 
pect for the future of our freedmen and colored people 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 521 

than is now presented by the condition of the colored 
people of Jamaica, St. Domingo, and other West Indian 
Islands ; unless selfish partisan politicians continue to 
demoralize and mislead them, by infusing into their 
minds false ideas of equality, and false hopes of position 
and political power, which can never be realized. Such 
ideas have a tendency to produce restlessness and dis- 
satisfaction with their condition ; to divert them from 
the pursuits of industry, and to unfit their minds for 
faithful labor in such subordinate positions as they are 
fitted to fill ; to excite jealousy of, and rival ship with the 
whites ; to induce clannish, political, military, and indus- 
trial combinations among them ; and to involve them in 
contests with the whites, and eventually in a war of 
races. Such evils may be avoided, if a proper policy be 
seasonably adopted by the government. 

Sec. 24. — British Honduras, or Belize. 

British Honduras, or the Belize, occupies the south- 
easterly part of the peninsula of Yucatan, and is bounded 
south-easterly by the Bay of Honduras. It is about 160 
miles long, and from 60 to 80 broad, comprising an area 
of over 10,000 square miles. 

The population, as officially reported, for the years 
1823, 1845, an d 1848, and by the census of 1861, was as 
follows : 

1823 5791 

Males. Females. 

1845. Whites. 240 159) R 

" Colored 6,755 2,655 j" 9,S09 

1848 (officially estimated) 14,000 

1861 (per census) . 25,635 

Its principal value to Great Britain consists in its dye- 
woods and its timber. 



Sec. 25. British Guiana. 

British Guiana extends along the north coast of South 
America, from the mouth of the Orinoco to the Corentyn 



522 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

river, which separates it from Dutch Guiana, having an 
area of about 76,000 square miles. It is divided into 
three counties, viz. : Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, 
which (prior to 1 831) formed distinct colonies. 
The population, in 1834, was as follows : 



Whites. Free colored. Apprentices. Total. 

Demerara and) „ ^ ^ ^ /?„--/: » tM „ 

Essequibo. } 3 '°° 6 6 ' 36 ° 65 ' 556 74 ' 922 

Berbice 570 1,651 19,359 21,580 



Total 3,576 8,011 84,915 96,502 

Slavery was abolished in 1834, but the apprentice sys- 
tem continued until 1838. 

Population in 185 1 (by census) 1 3 5,994 

of whom 7,682 were Coolies. 
Population in 1861 (per census) 148,026 

There were 108 schools in the colony, and 7,713 
scholars on the register, with an average attendance of 
4,970. 4,305 immigrants (Coolies) from Calcutta were 
introduced during the year 1862. On the 1st of January, 
1865, there were 32,150 under indenture, of whom 
2 4>397 were males, and 7,753 females ; — of the whole, 
24,502 were from Hindostan, 5,147 Chinese, and 1,382 
were Africans ; and there were introduced during the 
year 3,216 from India, 1,691 Chinese, 42 Africans, and 
13 Portuguese. During the year ending June 30, 1865, 
there were 5,920 immigrants, who entered into renewed 
engagements for five years. In September, 1865, one 
vessel conveyed to Calcutta 465 returned emigrants, who 
took with them .£11,235, besides jewelry. From 1850 
to the end of 1865 — 5,182 immigrants returned to their 
native land. 

From 1 840 to 1853, the exports fell off nearly one-half; 
but since the introduction of Asiatic laborers, the exports 
have increased again very much, and are now as large as 
they were prior to 1840; and the country is again 
flourishing. 



THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 523 

Sec. 26. Dutch Guiana, or Surinam. 

Dutch Guiana extends along the coast about 170 miles, 
from the British possessions on the west, to the river 
Maroni, which separates it from French Guiana on the 
east. The southern boundary is in the mountains, and 
undefined ; but supposed to be about 300 miles from the 
coast ; which would give it an area of about 50,000 
square miles. It was settled by the Dutch as early as 
1580, and is a valuable addition to their West India pos- 
sessions. 

Murray estimates the population (1830) at 18,000, or 
20,000 ; and McCulloch says, exclusive of Indians and 
Maroons, it was probably about 65,000 (in 1839), of whom 
6,000 were whites and free colored, principally Dutch. 
The N. Am. Cyclopaedia states "the population in 1856 
at 52,533, of whom about five-sixths are negroes. The 
hills are peopled chiefly by Maroons, or runaway negroes." 

The Almanach de Gotha for 1865 says the population 
in December, 1861, was 52,176, consisting of 16,805 free 
persons, and 35,371 slaves ; besides about 1,000 native 
Indians, and about 7,500 Maroons (runaway negro slaves, 
and their descendants). The act to abolish slavery did 
not take full effect until 1863 ; and hence the effects 
which emancipation will produce are unknown. 

Our information of the population, exports, and condi- 
tion of the colony at different periods, is too uncertain 
to determine what progress it has made. The exports 
of 1853 were valued at $1,312,118. 

The government is vested in a Governor appointed by 
the King of the Netherlands, and a Council elected by the 
freeholders of the colony. They have not followed the 
modern English practice, of conferring the elective fran- 
chise upon every adult male Negro. 

Sec. 2J. French Guiana, or Cayenne. 

French Guiana has an area of probably 40,000 square 
miles ; the southern boundary being unsurveyed. It was 
settled by the French as early as 1604; but being 
extremely unhealthy, many of the emigrants sent out 



524 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

from France have fallen victims to the climate, and the 
increase of population has been very slow. Since 1848, 
it has been a penal colony, to which, up to the end of 
the year 1857, over 4,000 convicts had been sent. 

McCulloch states the population in 1837, at 21,648, of 
which 5,056 were free, and 16,592 negro slaves. The 
Annuaire de TEconomie Politique et de la Statistique 
of Paris, for 1866, states the population in 1862, at 
24,951 ; and the exports of the same year at 1,391,986 
francs, and for 1863, at 725,776 francs. The colored 
population are said to be fifteen times as numerous as 
the white. It has never flourished as a colony. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

Catholic America. 

Sec. i. Introductory Remarks ) and Views of the Charac- 
ter and Condition of the Peoples. 

Catholic America includes all the countries colonized 
by Spain and Portugal, — -which are Catholic powers. It 
includes Mexico, Central America, and all South Amer- 
ica except British and Dutch Guiana, and Patagonia. 
The intellectual power and capacity for improvement of 
the Indians and mixed breeds of Mexico, Central and 
South America, as well as of the United States, has 
been heretofore discussed, and their inferiority pointed 
out (in Chapter XXV., Sections 15, 16 and 17, pages 
216 to 227.) 

Nearly all the best settled parts of Mexico lie in the 
torrid zone, and have a tropical climate, which is modi- 
fied in the high table-lands, plains, and valleys of the in- 
terior, by the elevation of the country, and the air from 
neighboring mountains. Such is the situation, also, of 
all the other countries of Spanish and Portuguese Amer- 
ica, except Chili, Buenos Ayres and the Argentine Re- 
public, Uruguay, a part of Paraguay, and a small portion 
of the southern part of Brazil ; which excepted countries 
and districts lie south of the Southern tropic, and have a 
warm, but not a tropical climate. Nearly the whole popu- 
lation of all those countries (the descendants of the 
Spaniards and Portuguese as well as the Indians and 
mixed breeds), have been more or less affected by the 
climate, and assimilated in their physical constitution 
and mental and moral character, to the inhabitants of 
other tropical countries ; and yet their differences of race 
and origin, the Catholic religion, the laws and customs, 
institutions and elements of civilization carried by the 



526 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

colonists from Spain and Portugal to America, have pro- 
duced wide differences, not only between the whites, but 
also between the Indians and the natives of Africa and 
Oceanica. 

The Indians have been subjected to, and profoundly 
affected by, Spanish rule, and by Spanish laws and cus- 
toms. The most of them have been converted to the 
Catholic faith, so far as they are able to understand it ; 
and they have generally adopted the Spanish customs 
and civilization, so far as their condition, weak intellects, 
and limited acquirements would admit of. The ancient 
customs and superstitions of the Indians are substantially 
obliterated ; their languages have mostly passed away ; 
and the only elements of civilization existing in all those 
countries, have come from Europe and the United States 
of America. In Brazil, the civilization of the country is 
mostly of Portuguese origin, and in the other countries 
it is mostly of Spanish origin ; and yet, climatic and other 
influences upon ancestors, have produced differences of 
race, which have made the constitution of the brain, and 
the intellect of the Indian, very different from, and in- 
ferior to, the Spaniard and other European races. 

The Indians of those countries, and the mixed breeds 
of Indian and white descent, are a chaste and industrious, 
sober-minded and quiet people, compared with the Ne- 
groes and mulattoes of the British West Indies, who 
have been corrupted by lax laws, and political ambition ; 
and hence the former are a better population than the 
latter for the support of free institutions — though their 
grade of intellect is no higher. 

Mexico and several of the Spanish-American Repub- 
lics have been in a state of anarchy much of the time, 
during the last fifty years. In 31 years, from 1829 to 
i860, there were 15 revolutions in Mexico, in which the 
President of the Republic was deposed — besides numer- 
ous insurrections and revolutionary attempts which were 
not successful ; and insurrections and revolutions have 
been pretty common and numerous in all the Spanish 
American countries. All these disorders originate with 
the Spaniards, and not with the Indians, who are mere 
tools in the hands of military chieftains and ambitious 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 527 

demagogues, to aid in carrying their seditious and revo- 
lutionary schemes into effect. If the Indians were intel- 
ligent and public-spirited, they could not be so easily 
misled by designing men ; but would resist such dis- 
orders and revolutionary movements, and aid in main- 
taining law and order, and the public peace. If the 
elective franchise and eligibility to office be conferred 
upon our Southern Negroes, they will probably become a 
much more disorganizing and dangerous political ele- 
ment than the Indians of Mexico ; for the reason that 
they are more excitable and ambitious, and have more 
physical energy. 

The Spaniards seem to have genius only for war and 
politics — very little taste and adaptation to agriculture, 
mining, or commerce, less still for the mechanic arts, and 
none at all for machinery and manufactures upon a large 
scale. There is not much agriculture (properly speak- 
ing) either in Spanish America or Spain. In Spanish 
America they cultivate some wheat, considerable Indian 
corn, and some vegetables and fruits — though very little 
compared with the products of many other countries. 
Grazing, cattle-raising, and mining, are the principal em- 
ployments. Agriculture is carried on in a very rude 
manner, and with very primitive implements ; and such 
is the case also with mining by the inhabitants of the 
country. The most of the mining done in a scientific 
manner, and on a large scale, with steam-power and ma- 
chinery, is done by British mining companies, with 
British capital.* 

They did not commence making railroads in those 
countries until within a few years past ; at the end of 
the year 1866, there were in operation in all Spanish 
America (except the Island of Cuba), only about 750 
miles of railway, and 434 miles in Brazil — when there 
were 36,896 miles in the United States. They have 
been equally backward and behind the United States, 
Great Britain, and some other countries of Europe, in 
making canals, turnpike roads, and good commercial and 
post roads ; in steam navigation, travelling accommoda- 

* An estimate of the agricultural products, and the annual value of the 
productive industry of Mexico, is stated in Vol. I., pp. 448-450. 



528 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

tions, and mail facilities ; in the use of improved imple- 
ments and methods of agriculture ; and in the use of 
modern and improved tools and machinery in the me- 
chanic arts, and in manufacturing industry. The Span- 
iards have never made, either in Europe or America, any 
invention of importance to the human family, or to 
themselves. 

The people of Catholic America are not sufficiently 
intelligent, and the elements of civilization and progress 
in use among them are too few, to make industry and 
business active ; and hence the industry and products 
of all those countries are small in proportion to the 
population ; there is but little demand for labor ; wages 
are generally low, and at all times there are great num- 
bers out of employment, and doing very little. The 
people are in a very similar condition to that of the peo- 
ple of Italy, and all Western Europe, from the end of the 
$th to the end of the 15th century ; in a state of chronic 
anarchy. Persons that are unemployed and in distress, 
are generally restless and anxious for a change. France, 
for nearly a century, has been on the verge of revolution, 
whenever there is great distress among the laboring 
classes, and among business men. 

Whenever industry is trifling in amount, or deranged 
and depressed, and great numbers of people are out of 
employment, and destitute much of the time of the com- 
mon necessaries of life ; and particularly if there are in 
the country few employments but war, public office, and 
the ministry, for the educated classes, and the most of 
them are idle and poor, there will be great restlessness 
and anxiety for change ; many military men and great 
numbers of idle men, and persons of desperate fortunes, 
will be constantly ready to embark in a revolutionary 
movement, under any distinguished military leader, in 
the hope of improving their condition. Such has been 
the condition of Mexico and all Spanish America for half 
a century past. Nothing but a strong, stable, and 
well-organized government, can preserve order among 
such a people, in such a state of things. 

There are many difficulties in maintaining law and 
order, with republican institutions and an elective system 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 529 

of government, with frequent elections, in Catholic 
America ; among which the following may be regarded 
as the most prominent : 

1st. The low state of civilization and industry ; the few 
employments for the people ; and the great numbers of 
people out of employment or partially employed, and with- 
out much means of subsistence. A diversity of employ- 
ments tends to increase industry, commerce, and the 
demand for labor ; and leads to enterprise, public im- 
provements, and wealth. All such things aid in improv- 
ing the condition of the people, in making them satisfied 
with the government, and in fitting their minds for 
self-government, and for the exercise of the elective 
franchise. 

2d. The few employments for the educated classes, 
except under the government, in the army, and in the 
priesthood — there being but few schools, and few teach- 
ers needed ; no great railroad, transportation, banking, 
manufacturing, insurance, or other corporations — em- 
ploying large capitals, and offering large salaries to men 
of science, experience and business talent, to manage 
their affairs. 

3d. The heat of the climate — which tends to make the 
intellect and the moral sense weak, and the passions 
strong — to make the people indolent and improvident, 
impulsive and passionately fond of gambling and other 
excitements, and also of war and military adventure. 

4th. The great predominance of the Indian and mixed 
races, their low grade of intellect, ignorance, and inca- 
pacity to think for themselves — which renders them mere 
tools in the hands of the priesthood, military chieftains, 
and designing politicians. 

5 th. The entire predominance, power, and intolerance 
of the Catholic Church ; which holds the people in lead- 
ing strings, and often exercises a dangerous influence 
over them, and over the officers of government. It may 
well be doubted if the entire control of one church and 
one ecclesiastical organization, whether it be Catholic or 
Protestant, Episcopal or Congregational, be consistent 
with a republican form of government. When there are 
several ecclesiastical organizations, sectarian influences 

23 



530 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

balance each other, and the people are then governed by- 
reason rather than by authority. 

6th. The want of sound principles and maxims of law 
and government, and of a system of laws adapted to free 
institutions. 

7th. A deficiency of mail facilities, of newspapers and 
other periodicals, of schools and books, and of the means 
of diffusing information among the people. 

Some of these difficulties may be modified, and others 
may be removed, and some classes of deficiencies may be 
supplied ; but those numbered 3 and 4 can never be re- 
moved, and number 3 cannot be modified. And hence 
it may well be doubted if it be possible to enforce the 
laws, and to maintain peace and order, under a republican 
form of government, with frequent elections, in those 
tropical countries. 

Sec. 2. Mexico — its Resources and Population. 

Since the last cession of territory to the United States, 
Mexico has had an area of about 760,000 square miles. 
Its agricultural resources are small, considering its large 
territory. All the table-lands and plains lying north of 
the 23d parallel of latitude, and also the whole western 
coast north of that parallel, are extremely arid, and have 
but little timber. There is a very great deficiency in 
the annual fall of water ; and all the table-lands north of 
the 20th parallel of latitude, suffer more or less from a 
deficiency of rain, from occasional severe drouths, and 
sometimes from unseasonable frosts. The character of 
the interior table-lands, their aridity and want of wood 
and timber, have been stated by Humboldt ; from whose 
work the first volume of this work, p. 448, contains some 
quotations. 

Of the 8,259,000 inhabitants, officially estimated in 
1862, over 6,500,000, and nearly four-fifths of the whole, 
are south of the 23d parallel of latitude, in States and 
districts which comprise only about two-fifths of the area 
of the Republic — showing that the population of the 
south two-fifths of Mexico, is about six times as dense 
as that of the north three-fifths ; and yet the north part 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 53 I 

is the most healthy, and the climate the most desirable. 
This can be explained only by the fact that the south 
part of Mexico has, very generally, a much moister 
climate, and is, for that reason, vastly more productive. 
The north three-fifths lies in the same arid belt as the 
deserts of Sahara, Arabia, Southern Persia, and Beloo- 
chistan ; and between the same parallels of latitude in 
the Northern hemisphere as the central and arid belt of 
Australia lies in the Southern. (See ante, pages 350 
and 351.) 

No complete census of Mexico was ever taken ; but 
from a partial and imperfect census taken in 1841, and 
subsequent official estimates, it is pretty certain that 
there has been a regular increase of the population of 
over 50,000 annually, since the commencement of the 
present century ; and probably about 60,000 annually 
since 1840. 

Probably in 1800 5,000,000 

In 1 820 6,000,000 

In 1 841, per census and official re- 
ports 7,044,000 

In 1850, after cession of New Mex- 
ico and California to the United 
States 7,500,000 

In 1862, per official estimate 8,259,000 

Not over one million are of pure European descent. 
(See Vol. I., p. 600 and 601.) 

Sec. 3. Recent History and Probable Future of 
Mexico. 

The French, English, and Spanish, acting in concert, 
invaded Mexico and took Vera Cruz in the year 1861 — to 
enforce the payment of certain claims to their respective 
citizens. The English and Spanish claims were settled 
in 1 862, and their troops retired from the country ; but 
the French penetrated into the interior, took the capital 
and all the most important cities and places, during the 
years 1862 and 1863, and virtually conquered the con- 
quered ; and in 1 864 they established the Empire of 



532 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

Maximilian, of Austria. Upon the remonstrance of the 
government of the United States against their proceed- 
ings, the French armies were withdrawn early in the 
winter of 1 867 ; the people everywhere rose against the 
government of Maximilian, overcame his forces, took him 
prisoner, overturned his empire, tried him by court-mar- 
tial as a usurper, convicted and executed him ; and re- 
established the Republic. In the Fall of 1867, an elec- 
tion was held, and Juarez was re-elected President. Or- 
der of the Mexican kind has been restored in all the 
States except Yucatan, which is now (January, 1868) in a 
state of insurrection. The embassies and legations of 
the European courts have been withdrawn from Mexico ; 
and what may be the fate of that unfortunate country, it 
is impossible to foresee. The impression in this coun- 
try, as well as in Europe, is increasing, that the sooner it 
comes under the protection of the government of the 
United States, the better it will be for the Mexican 
people, and for the cause of commerce and civilization. 

Sec. 4. Central America. 

Murray says, "An official census in 1778 gave a popu- 
lation of 797,000 ; but this has been shown to have been 
incomplete. Humboldt, during his stay in Mexico, saw 
official documents, which carried it to 1,200,000." He 
estimated it then (1830) at 1,800,000. 

Mr. E. G. Squier, formerly Charge d' Affaires of the 
United States to Central America, estimated the area 
and population of the several States in 1855, as follows : 

Area in Number to 

States. Sq. Miles. Population. Sq. Mile. 

Guatemala 43>38o 850,000 nearly 20 

Honduras 39,600 350,000 9 

San Salvador .. . 9,594 394,000 41 

Nicaragua 49,500 300,000 6 

Costa Rica 13,590 125,000 nearly 10 

155,664 2,019,000 13 

The estimates of Mr. Squier seem to have been made 
with care, upon the best data he could collect in the 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 533 

country ; and yet they are but a trifle larger than those 
made in 1837 by Col. Galindo, and adopted by McCul- 
loch — the aggregate of which was 1,900,000. 

The aggregate of each class of persons was estimated 
by Galindo and Squier, as follows : 

By Galindo. By Squier. 

Whites 475,000 100,000 

Mixed breeds 740,000 800,000 

Indians 685,000 1,109,000 

Negroes 10,000 

Total 1,900,000 2,019,000 

The proportion of whites has been variously estimat- 
ed at from one-fourth to one-twelfth of the whole popu- 
lation. 

Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia for 1866 states that, 
according to a census taken in September, 1865, by order 
of the government, under the direction of the Priest 
Ospina, the population of Guatemala amounted to 
1,180,000. It also puts down the area of Costa Rica at 
21,440 square miles, and states that according to a cen- 
sus taken in 1 844, the population was 79,982 ; and that 
according to a later census taken in 1864, it amounted to 
120,471. 

There was probably an increase of the population of 
Costa Rica between the years 1844 and 1864, of 25 or 
30 per cent., but not 50 per cent. The last census is 
probably more reliable than the first. 

Not only the estimates of the population of Central 
America at different periods, but also the tables of births 
and deaths given by Squier, show a large increase of the 
population ; which may be estimated at from 25 to 30 
per cent, every 20 years, as follows : 

In 1778 850,000 

In 1800 1,100,000 

In 1820 1,400,000 

In 1840 nearly 1,800,000 

In 1 850 2,000,000 

In i860 2,250,000 



534 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

Sec. 5. New Grenada, or the United States of 
Colombia. 

A revolution and civil war commenced in i860, by 
which the government of New Grenada was overturned 
and a provisional government established, and was finally 
terminated in 1862. A new Constitution, establishing a 
federal government, by the name of the United States 
of Colombia, was formed and adopted, and put into oper- 
ation in May, 1863. The confederation or federal union 
embraces nine States, each having three senators in the 
National Senate, and in the House of Representatives 
one member for every 50,000 inhabitants, and any frac- 
tion over 20,000. By the new Constitution religious 
liberty was established, and the most of the property of 
the church was confiscated. 

Another revolutionary movement was commenced in 
March, 1867, by President Mosquera, who was declared 
Dictator. May 23d, Gen. Acosta, Commanding-General 
of the Army and 2d Vice-President of the Republic, 
seized President Mosquera in his palace, thrust him into 
prison, assumed the exercise of the powers of President, 
and officially announced the revolution to the ambassa- 
dors of foreign countries. Such is the revolutionary and 
distressed condition of the people of that country, which 
partly grows out of the contest between the friends of 
free toleration in religious matters, and the ecclesiastical 
hierarchy of the Catholic Church, and the efforts of the 
former to confiscate and appropriate to the use of the 
government, a portion of the property of the church not 
needed for religious purposes. 

The area of the Republic has been stated at from 
380,000 to 521,948 square miles; and if the maps be 
correct, the area cannot be much (if any) less than 
520,000 square miles. 

The population has been stated as follows : 

By the census of 1834, at. ... . 1,687,100 

By the census of 185 1, at ......... . 2,223,873 

Estimated in 1864, at .... . . 2,794,473 

and so published in the Almanack de Gotha for 1865. 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 535 

The census of 185 1 showed an increase in 17 years of 
nearly 32 per cent; and equal to about 18 per cent, in 
ten years. The estimate in 1864 made an increase of 
over 25 J per cent, in 13 years, which is about the same 
rate of increase shown by the census during the previous 
17 years. 

More than six-tenths of the inhabitants are of Euro- 
pean descent, and less than one-fourth part are pure In- 
dians. (See Vol. I., pages 603 and 613.) The productive 
industry and exports are small. 



Sec 6. The Republic of Venezuela. 

The area of Venezuela is about 426,000 square miles, 
and the population at different periods has been officially 
reported as follows : 

Official estimateof 1834 900,000 

Official census of 1844 1,052,000 

Official estimate of 185 1 1,356,000 

Official estimateof 1858 1,565,000 

These statements make an increase of nearly 50 per 
cent in 14 years, from 1844 to 1858, which is too much 
by nearly half. They show on their face that they are 
not reliable ; and yet they are such as to leave no doubt 
that the population is rapidly increasing. The census of 
1 844 divided the population as follows : 

Whites 298,000 

Mixed races 480,000 

Negro, slaves 48,000 

Civilized Indians 160,000 

Uncivilized and independent Indians 66,000 

Total. 1,052,000 

The population in 1834 and 1844 was probably under- 
stated, and at the later periods, over-estimated. 

The New American Cyclopaedia says, the civilized In- 
dians are docile and industrious, and are the miners, agri- 



536 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

culturists, herdsmen, and manufacturers of the republic . . 
. . The mixed races are indolent, and generally unintel- 
ligent. The whites are better educated, and retain the 
power of the State in their own hands? 

Insurrections, civil wars between factions, revolutions 
and changes in the government, have been about as 
frequent in Venezuela, as in other Spanish American 
countries. 

Sec. 7. Ecuador, or Equador. 

The area of Ecuador has been variously estimated at 
from 240,000 to 325,000 square miles. Perhaps 325,000 
is not too high an estimate, if our maps in general use are 
correct. 

It has been an independent republic since the division 
(in 1 831) of the Confederated Republic of Colombia 
into three distinct republics, viz., New Grenada (now 
the United States of Colombia), Venezuela, and Ecuador. 

The population was officially estimated in 1834 at 
600,000 — and in 1858 at 1,040,371 ; of which about 
600,000 are of European descent. That would give an 
increase of over 73 per cent, in 24 years ; which is very 
much larger than that reported for New Grenada, and is 
not probable. The table of estimates of the population 
of the different provinces of New Grenada, including 
Ecuador, given by Malte-Brun, makes the population 
larger at an earlier period. I am therefore inclined to 
estimate the population of Ecuador in 1830 at about 
650,000, and the decennial increase since that period at 
18 per cent, about the same as that of New Grenada; 
which would make — 

In 1840, about 767,000 

In 1850, " . . , ... 905,000 

In 1 860, " 1,068,000 

In 1858 (as reported), about , . 1,040,000 

Sec. 8. Peru — Its Area and Population. 

The area of Peru is about 500,000 square miles. Mur- 
ray says the population, according to an enumeration 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 537 

made about the year 1803, amounted to 1,070,000 ; of 
which 1 36,000 were of Spanish descent, 609,000 Indians, 
244,000 Mestizoes, 41,000 free Negroes, and 40,000 Ne- 
gro slaves. McCulloch, in 1839, stated the population, as 
an estimate, at 1,700,000. 

The Almanach de Gothafor 1853 states the population 
at 1,373,736 ; that for 1868 states the population in 1859 
at 2,500,000; and Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia for 
1866 states it for i860 at 2,065,000. Such discrepancies 
indicate that no reliable census has been taken since that 
in 1803. 

Anarchy has prevailed more generally in Peru than in 
New Grenada ; the natural resources of the country, the 
proportion of white inhabitants, the industry of the peo- 
ple, and the increase of the population, it is believed, have 
all been greater in New Grenada than in Peru ; and hence 
I estimate the increase of the population of the latter at 
about 30 per cent, each 20 years. Population, excluding 
independent Indians, in 

1803, per census 1,070,000 

1820, estimated at 1,350,000 

1840, " 1,750,000 

i860, " 2,300,000 

and perhaps 2,500,000 in i860, including uncivilized, in- 
dependent Indians. 



Sec 9. Bolivia — its Situation and Population. 

Bolivia being an interior agricultural, pastoral and 
mining country, without much commercial intercourse 
with the United States or any country of Europe, but 
little is known in relation to it. Its area has been stated 
from 318,000 by McCulloch, to 832,000 square miles more 
recently by the Almanach de Gotha, and Appleton's An- 
nual Cyclopaedia for 1865. The boundaries between Bo- 
livia and the Argentine Confederation, and also between 
Bolivia and Brazil, do not appear to be settled ; and 
hence its area is uncertain. 

No reliable census has ever been taken ; all the state- 
23* 



538 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

ments of the population are uncertain estimates ; some 
of which include, and others exclude, the uncivilized in- 
dependent tribes of Indians. Murray states the popula- 
tion (1830) at 1,700,000 — McCulloch (1839) at 1,030,000 ; 
and the New American Cyclopaedia, Vol. III., published 
in 1859, states it, according to the latest authorities, at 
1,425,758. The Almanach de Gotha for 1853, says a then 
recent report, increased the population from 1,030,000 to 
1,330,000 ; and the issues of that work in 1862 and since, 
give an estimate made in 1858, making the population, 
exclusive of uncivilized Indians — 1,742,352 ; uncivilized 
Indians, 245,000; total, 1,987,352. Considering the state 
of the country, that is probably a pretty large estimate. 

Bolivia was connected with Peru until 1825. when the 
inhabitants established an independent Republic. The 
New American Cyclopaedia says, "From 1829 almost to 
the (then) present time (1859), Ihis unhappy country has 
been the scene of constant revolutions!' Such a state of 
things, without much industry or commerce, is not favor- 
able to a very rapid increase of population ; and yet the 
estimates and the undoubted increase of all the neigh- 
boring countries, indicate a large increase. 

Perhaps the increase of the population has been less 
than in Peru, and about 25 per cent, each 20 years ; and 
if we assume it to have been 900,000 in 1800, exclusive 
of uncivilized and independent tribes of Indians, it was 
probably in 1820 about 1,125,000 ; in 1840 about 1,400,- 
000; and in i860, about 1,750,000, and 2,000,000, includ- 
ing uncivilized Indians. This calculation corresponds 
pretty well with the estimates made from time to time. 
Not more than one-tenth part of the inhabitants are be- 
lieved to be of pure European descent, three-tenths 
mixed breeds, and six-tenths Indians. 

Sec. 10. Chili — its Population and Progress. 

Chili, including Western Patagonia, which is claimed 
by it, extends from the 24th degree of south latitude to 
Cape Horn ; a distance of 2,000 miles. It lies between 
the Pacific Ocean and the summit of the Andes, and has 
an average breadth of about 130 miles. 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 539 

It was subject to Spain till 1810, when the revolution 
commenced, which, after several years' war, resulted in 
the independence of the country, and the establishment 
of a republican form of government. The President is 
elected for five years, the senators for nine, and 
members of the Chamber of Deputies for three years. 
Several insurrections and revolutionary movements have 
been made ; but none have been successful, and the 
people of Chili have enjoyed more peace and prosperity, 
increased more rapidly in numbers, and made more prog- 
ress in education, productive industry, and wealth, than 
the people of any other Spanish American country. 
Several causes have contributed to this result. 

1st. The whole country lies in the south temperate 
zone, and enjoys a temperate climate, and the most of it 
a mild and very good and healthy climate ; which has 
been favorable to the intellect, as well as to the industry 
of the people, and to their stability of character. 

2d. Its natural boundaries and defences, and its re- 
moteness from warlike and ambitious neighbors, has 
been favorable to the maintenance of peace without much 
standing army ; and hence a spirit of peace and of 
peaceful industry has predominated among the people ; 
and seldom having any occasion for military men, they 
have not raised such a crop of ambitious military chief- 
tains and heroes, as they have in other Spanish American 
countries — to stir up revolutions, raise insurrections, and 
disturb the public peace. 

3d. The Catholic Church and Bishops of Chili have 
no great wealth, except their church edifices and parson- 
ages ; and the elections and government of the republic 
are not subject to the dominating influence of an eccle- 
siastical hierarchy, of great wealth and power. In this 
respect Chili is more fortunate than her older sister 
republics. 

It is a great misfortune to any country, to have a large 
amount of property (not needed for religious purposes), 
under the control of ecclesiastical corporations, in a state 
of mortmain, exempt from taxation — subjecting a great 
number of persons to ecclesiastical influences, as tenants 
and debtors ; and often making the administration of the 



54° CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

government dependent upon them for loans. (See ante, 
p. 99.) 

The regular army of Chili has generally consisted of 
less than 2,500 men ; less than 1,500 to a million of in- 
habitants ; aspiring generals have had no power to carry 
revolutionary movements into effect successfully, as they 
have in Mexico ; and hence they have had no tempta- 
tions to disturb the peace of the country. (For the 
influence of standing armies, see ante, p. 104.) 

No reliable census of the population of Chili was 
taken until the year 1854, though the census of 1843 
was probably not far from correct. Three have been 
taken since 1854, which show such a regular increase in 
the number of inhabitants, as to indicate that they are 
all entitled to credit. They showed an aggregate popu- 
lation (exclusive of about 10,000 independent Arauca- 
nian Indians,) as follows : 

Census of 1843 1,083,800 

Census of 1854 1,439,120 

Census of Dec. 31st, 1857 I »5S 8 *3 I 9 

Census of 1865 1,819,223 

Census of April, 1866 2,084,945 

including in the last census, Araucania, Western Pata- 
gonia, and Terra del Fuego. The foreigners resident in 
the country numbered 23,220 ; and there were 832 re- 
ported upwards of 100 years of age. Perhaps no country 
in the world has a larger number of persons, in propor- 
tion to the population, over 100 years of age ; which 
shows the remarkable salubrity of the climate. About 
one-fourth part are of pure European descent, three- 
eighths mixed, and three-eighths Indians. 

The report of the census of 1843 is probably too low, 
for the census of 1854 shows an increase of nearly 33 
per cent, during the 11 years ; which is not probable. 
The census of 1865 showed an increase of a little over 
26\ per cent, during the preceding 11 years, equal to 
nearly 24 per cent, in 10 years. Such a ratio of increase, 
nearly all from the excess of births over deaths, and in a 
country which has very few foreign immigrants, is very 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 



541 



remarkable. It exceeds the natural increase of every 
country in the world, except the United States, the 
British North American Provinces, and Paraguay. 

Such facts of progress in population show that there 
must be great progress* also in industry — to support a 
rapidly increasing number of inhabitants ; and consider- 
able energy among the Spaniards, and the Indians and 
mixed breeds also, in that temperate climate ; and that 
the government and laws, police and administration of 
justice, under which such effects are produced, must be 
pretty good. 

There were in 1857, schools and pupils in attendance, 
as follows : 



Common schools for boys . . 
Common schools for girls . . 
Night schools for artisans . 
Schools of arts and trades . 

Normal schools 

Government academies 
Private academies for boys. 
Private academies for girls.. 
Conventual colleges 



562 


Pupils 


... 23,254 


295 


tt 


. . . 10,097 


18 


a 


1,042 


2 


(( 


IIS 


2 


it 


I60 


14 


u 


. . . 1,882 


20 


a 


... 1,144 


25 


tt 


. . . 1,444 


6 


a 


259 



The Constitution, prior to 1865, established the Cath- 
olic religion, and tolerated no other ; but in July of that 
year, it was so amended as to provide that worship in 
buildings belonging to private persons, is allowed to those 
who do not profess the Roman Catholic faith ; and dis- 
senters are allowed to establish and maintain private non- 
Catholic schools, for the education of their own children. 

The subject of steam navigation and railroads, and 
their influence upon Chili and other Catholic-Ameri- 
can countries, will be discussed in a subsequent section. 

Verily, it seems possible for even a mongrel people, 
under Spanish-American domination, to make great prog- 
ress in a temperate and good climate, and under favor- 
able circumstances. 



Sec. 11. The Argentine Confederation, and Patagonia. 
The Argentine Republic consists of 14 Confederated 



542 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

States, including Buenos Ayres, which was reunited 
with it in June, i860 — after having formed a separate and 
independent republic, from 1853 to i860. Including the 
country south to Rio Negro, and excluding Patagonia, 
the Republic has an area of abofit 540,000 square miles. 
But the Confederate Government claims jurisdiction over 
all that part of Patagonia lying east of the Andes, which 
comprises about 150,000 square miles, and is supposed 
to have an uncivilized and independent Indian popula- 
tion of nearly 100,000. It claims, also, the Indian coun- 
try of Chaco, west of Paraguay, and north of the Vermejo 
River. 

It does not appear that any complete census has ever 
been taken of this republic. In 1837 Sir Woodbine 
Parish made a careful inquiry and estimate of the area 
and population of the several States, and made the ag- 
gregate population from 600,000 to 675,000, exclusive of 
independent Indians. McCulloch published the table of 
estimates made by Parish, saying, "we are inclined to 
think that this estimate is under the mark, and that the 
population may be set dow?i at about a million." 

It was estimated in 1855 at 1,100,000, and by Martin 
de Moussy in 1863 at 1,377,000. 

The city and State of Buenos Ayres is put down by 
Moussy at 350,000, which is probably too low. An esti- 
mate for 1856, made in the New American Cyclopaedia, 
based upon a census of Oct., 1855, puts down the rural 
population at 202,335, an d the city of Buenos Ayres at 
101,000 — total, 303,335, and says, "The population (in 
1858) in round numbers, is estimated by some authorities 
at 400,000." 

Buenos Ayres having a large and rich territory, 
mostly prairie, a fine and healthy climate, situated on one 
of the largest and noblest rivers in the world, offering 
great advantages for commercial enterprise and for busi- 
ness men, engineers and mechanics, and some degree of 
religious toleration ; and the privilege of having non- 
Catholic private schools having been established, there 
has been a large emigration for some years past to that 
State ; and some to other States of the Confederation. 
Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia for 1865 estimates the 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 543 

resident foreigners in the city and State of Buenos 
Ayres, and the Almanach de Gotha for 1868 in the whole 
Argentine Republic, as follows : 

In Buenos Ayres. In the Confederation. 

From Spain 25,000 32,000 

Italians 30,000 70,000 

English and Irish 25,000 32,000 

Germans . 3,500 ) OOQ 

From United States .... 3,000 j D ' 

Portuguese 2,500 

From France 30,000 25,000 

Add for Portuguese, Swiss, 

and other peoples 7,000 10,000 

Total of foreign birth, 126,000 174,000 

More than 13,000 immigrants arrived in 1866. The 
most of them were brought there by the construction of 
the railroads in progress. 

The Almanach de Gotha for 1868, gives a table of the 
population of the several States, according to the report of 
F. C. Ford, Secretary of the British Legation at Buenos 
Ayres, in which the population of the city and State of 
Buenos Ayres is estimated at 450,000, and that of the 
whole Confederation at 1,465,000 ; which I presume is a 
fair estimate for the year 1865 : 

My estimate for 1840 840,000 

Natural increase in 10 years i6| per 

cent 140,000 

Immigrants 20,000 

Total in 1850 1,000,000 

Natural increase to 1 8 5 5 — 8|- per cent. 85,000 
Immigrants 1 5,000 

Total in 1855 1,100,000 

Natural increase in ten years, 20 per 

cent. . — 220,000 



544 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

Immigrants and their children 140,000 



Total in 1865 about 1,460,000 






The fourteen States form a large country ; having a 
mild, temperate, and healthy climate, large agricultural, 
pastoral, and mineral resources, great facilities for inter- 
nal navigation and commerce, and for making roads and 
railroads, as well as for foreign commerce ; and being now 
united under one federal government, they have been fa- 
vored by the immigration of a great number of active 
and intelligent men from England and other countries, 
and been supplied with English capital and iron, and with 
engineers and mechanics to build and operate railroads 
for them ; and if they can only learn submission to law 
and order, and become imbued with a spirit of peace, and 
regard for peaceful industry, they will make more rapid 
progress in the future than any other country of Catho- 
lic America. 



Sec. 1 2. Paraguay — Its Government and People. 

The area of Paraguay is about 73,000 square miles. 
Situated between and in the forks of two great rivers — 
the Paraguay and the Parana — and watered by numerous 
smaller streams, it has a large quantity of rich and fer- 
tile valley lands, great agricultural resources, and fine 
facilities for commerce. 

McCulloch puts down the population, on the authority 
of the American Almanac of 1841, at 300,000, and the 
New American Cyclopaedia, in 1861, estimates it at only 
600,000. An official report of 1857 states it at 1,337,431. 

The government has been a Dictatorship nearly all 
the time, for more than fifty years. The Spanish gov- 
ernment was overthrown in 181 1. In 1814 Dr. Jose G. 
R. Francia was elected Dictator for three years. In 
1 817 he was elected Dictator for life, and ruled the 
country with great ability, but with absolute despotism, 
until his death in 1 840. From that time anarchy reigned, 
and two revolutions followed each other in quick suc- 
cession, until two military chieftains, M. R. Alonzo, and 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. * 545 

Charles A. Lopez, were elected consuls in 1841. In 
1844 Lopez was elected President for ten years, and 
became in effect Dictator and absolute master of the 
country. In 1854 he was re-elected for three years, 
and, in 1857, again for seven years. After his death 
in 1862, his son Francis S. Lopez, put himself at the 
head of the government by virtue of the testamentary 
disposition of the father, and still retains the supreme 
executive power as President ; but really as Dictator. 

In the pride of power, and infatuated with ambition, 
Lopez attacked and captured a Brazilian mail-steamer 
in the river, and also seized some Argentine vessels, 
and finally invaded the territories of the Brazilian and 
Argentine governments, and made war upon them, with- 
out any declaration of war, or just cause ; which united 
Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay in an alli- 
ance by treaty, in May, 1865, to prosecute a war against 
him. The war has now been raging nearly three years ; 
Lopez and the Paraguayans have fought bravely, and 
shown great energy and ability as warriors, exhibited 
great military resources, and gained several considerable 
victories over the Allies ; though the preponderance of 
resources and forces against them is so great, that the 
armies of the allies have generally prevailed ; and the 
exhaustion of Paraguay, and the final overthrow of Lo- 
pez, is only a question of time. 

With the exception of the short revolutionary period 
after the death of Dr. Francia, the first dictator, Para- 
guay enjoyed peace, tranquillity and prosperity for fifty 
years and upwards ; and increased in population and 
industry, wealth and power, with greater rapidity than 
any of the Catholic American States, not even except- 
ing Chili ; and the indications are that the increase of 
population, from natural causes, was greater than it has 
been in the United States and the Canadas. 

Since the revolution in 181 1, there has been very 
little emigration to Paraguay, unless a few Indians have 
gone there ; and nearly the whole increase must have 
been from natural causes — the excess of births over 
deaths. Murray and other authors estimated the popu- 
lation in 1830 at only about 200,000. But let us sup- 



546 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

pose it was then greatly underrated, and that it amount- 
ed to 300,000 at the time of the revolution in 181 1 — 
of whom one-tenth, or 30,000, were of pure European 
descent, three-tenths mixed breeds, and six-tenths In- 
dians, then only partially civilized. They were not a 
very promising stock to breed rapidly, and make a 
great industrial people. The natural increase of In- 
dians and of all half-civilized peoples, has always been 
slow ; but if the official report of the population in 
1857 (which is generally credited) be correct, the popu- 
lation of Paraguay must have doubled twice in forty- 
four years or less — first from 300,000 to 600,000, and 
again from 600,000 to 1,200,000, between the years 181 1 
and 1855 ; which is more rapid than we have had in 
the United States, with millions of immigrants. And 
yet the armies and natural resources exhibited by the 
Paraguayans during this war, indicate that the popu- 
lation is not greatly overrated in the official report of 
1857; and that there must be great industry, energy 
of character, and public spirit among the people, con- 
sidering the climate in which they live. 

The policy and measures of both Francia and the 
elder Lopez, must have been generally wise and pru- 
dent, and the influence of the Jesuits and Catholic mis- 
sionaries, in civilizing the Indians and teaching them 
industry, must have been efficient, to produce such re- 
markable results. No such results have ever been pro- 
duced among a mongrel people, of inferior natural in- 
tellect, in a hot climate, under a popular system of 
government. Popular liberty, regulated by law, is of 
great importance to promote the welfare of an intelli- 
gent and industrious people, living in a temperate 
climate, and under favorable circumstances ; but it may 
well, be doubted if it be adapted to a mongrel people, 
mostly Indians or Negroes, in a hot climate. 

Sec 13. Uruguay, or Banda-Oriental. 

Uruguay has an area of about 72,000 square miles. 
Murray states the population, in 1830, at only 75,000. 
McCulloch says, in 1839, " its population is not supposed 
(Indians included) to exceed 150,000, or at most 200,000." 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 547 

The Almanach de Gotha states the population, accord- 
ing to a census taken in 1859 an d i860, at 240,965. 
The Secretary of the Exterior estimated the population 
in 1864 at 350,000, including 150,000 of foreign birth. 

It is about as large as Paraguay, has quite as large 
agricultural and pastoral resources, greater facilities for 
foreign commerce, and a more temperate and much 
better climate ; and yet it has less than one-fourth part 
as many inhabitants. What causes have produced so 
widely different results ? So far as I can learn and judge, 
the remarkably different results must be ascribed to 
political causes, and to political causes only. 

Uruguay was first settled by colonists from Buenos 
Ayres ; but being on the borders between the Spanish 
and Portuguese settlements, ambition for extended do- 
minion caused a war between Portugal and Spain for the 
dominion of the country, and the Spaniards held it. 
During its revolutionary state, and when distracted with 
internal dissensions, Brazil invaded and took possession 
of it in 1 82 1. Buenos Ayres protested, and in 1826 
went to war with Brazil for the conquest of the country ; 
which finally resulted in the north part being ceded to 
Brazil, and an independent government, republican in 
form, being established in 1828, for the present territory 
of Uruguay. But the people and the government being 
conceived and brought forth in a state of war and con- 
fusion, war and anarchy seem to be the normal condition 
of that distracted country. Their difficulties have been 
multiplied by the ambition, the intrigues, and the forcible 
interposition of the Brazilians ; but their internal dissen- 
sions have invited such interferences. 

While a strong government, and generally wise and 
prudent ruler, gave peace and tranquillity, security and 
prosperity to Paraguay, a turbulent democracy and nu- 
merous ambitious generals, frequent electrons and politi- 
cal factions, have kept Uruguay distracted with dissen- 
sions, and involved in insurrections, and in civil or foreign 
wars the most of the time, since it became independent. 

The arts of peace and peaceful industry cannot flourish 
in times of revolution, nor when its energies are ex- 
hausted in war ; nor can a country increase much in 



54$ CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

population, wealth, and power, during the existence of 
such a state of things. 

The people of Uruguay and the Argentine Republic 
having the same origin, speaking the same language, pro- 
fessing the same religion, and occupying territory divided 
only by the waters of a noble river, the interests of both 
and the cause of civilization would be promoted by their 
union under one federal government ; but the ambition 
of politicians and military chieftains has prevented such 
union. 

Sec. 14. Brazil. 

Brazil, including Amazonia, is a very large country, 
having an area of more than 3,000,000 square miles — 
being about as large as the United States and their terri- 
tories, previous to the acquisition of Russian America. 

More than nine-tenths of Brazil lies in the torrid zone ; 
and the whole of the part south of the tropic lies be- 
tween it and the 33d degree of latitude, and has a hot 
climate, except on the mountains and elevated situations 
in the interior. It has very large agricultural, pastoral, 
and mineral resources, and immense quantities of timber ; 
and much of it has a good climate for a tropical country. 
It is one of the best watered countries in the world ; and 
having an abundance of rain, a moist and hot climate, 
and generally a rich soil, vegetation is as luxuriant as 
in any part of the world. It is capable of producing im- 
mense quantities of cotton, sugar, coffee, rice, Indian-corn, 
tobacco, and other tropical fruits and products ; and the 
highlands in the interior produce wheat, and other grains 
and fruits of temperate regions. It has a great number of 
noble rivers, fine harbors, and facilities for internal and 
external commerce equal to any country on the earth. 
Perhaps it would not be extravagant to say, it is capable 
of furnishing the means of subsistence to nearly twice 
as many inhabitants as the whole continent of Africa, 
and more than the whole of Europe. 

Brazil was colonized by the Portuguese, and remained 
a colony of Portugal until 1808 ; when Portugal having 
been invaded by the French, the king and royal family 
emigrated to Brazil, and established his court at Rio 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 549 

Janeiro. The Court returned to Portugal in 1821. In 
October, 1822, a revolution broke out in Brazil, the coun- 
try was declared independent of Portugal, a constitution 
was formed, and Don Pedro, the Prince Regent, was pro- 
claimed Emperor. 

The government is a hereditary, limited, constitutional 
monarchy, in which the law-making power is vested in 
the Emperor, a Senate, and a Chamber of Deputies. 
The senators are chosen for life, and the deputies for 
four years, by electors. Each of the electors represents 
1 5 families, and is elected by voters, who have an annual 
income of $50. The empire is divided into 21 prov- 
inces, each of which has a provincial assembly, elected 
in a similar manner by the people ; and the judges hold 
their offices during good behavior. 

The senators constitute, to some extent, an aristoc- 
racy ; though not being appointed nor nominated by 
the Emperor, nor in any case inheriting their places and 
power, but being in all cases chosen by electors who 
are elected by the people, popular men and friends of 
the people are generally elected. That mode of election 
is as well calculated to bring forward the best talent, 
the greatest experience, and the ripest wisdom of the 
country, as any that could be devised. 

Popular elements are infused into the legislative de- 
partment of the government by the death of old sena- 
tors and the election of new men, who have distinguished 
themselves in some sphere of life, and by the election of 
the Chamber of Deputies every four years ; and yet the 
elections are made in such a manner as to give but little 
opportunity for popular agitation and demagoguism. 

The system is well calculated to secure talent, experi- 
ence, and popular men, freed from the shackles of party 
spirit ; to secure men of maturity of mind and wisdom, 
as far as is practicable, and to give strength and sta- 
bility to the government. I think it may be properly 
called the best organized monarchy in the world ; and 
better adapted to the people of a tropical climate than a 
republican form of government, with universal suffrage, 
and frequent elections. It has secured peace and tran- 
quillity to the empire ; by reason whereof the nation has 



550 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

been highly prosperous, and increased rapidly in num- 
bers and wealth ; while all the republics of Catholic 
America (except Chili and Paraguay), have been distract- 
ed with frequent dissensions and insurrections, civil wars 
and revolutions, which have disturbed the industry, and 
to a great extent destroyed the prosperity of the people. 

The established religion is Roman Catholic ; but 
Protestant worship in a quiet manner is tolerated. The 
Constitution guarantees the freedom of the press, the 
private rights of the individual, and trial by jury. 

No complete and reliable enumeration of the popula- 
tion of Brazil has ever been made. Malte-Brun esti- 
mated it about the year 1820 at 3,800,000. An official re- 
port, made in 18 18, estimated it at 3,617,000, as stated in 
vol. i., p. 603. An official report to the government in 
1853, of the population of the several provinces of the 
empire (as stated in the New American Cyclopaedia), 
gives the 

Aggregate at 7, 1 2 1,000 

In 1856 (per Almanach de Gotha), 7,677,000 
In 1864, " " " 10,045,000 

of which 1,715,000 were slaves. All these estimates are 
believed to be exclusive of uncivilized and wandering In- 
dians, who have been estimated at 500,000. 

The African slave trade was active, and great num- 
bers of slaves were imported into Brazil until about the 
year 1845 ; and considering that fact, the immigration 
from Europe, the condition, tranquillity, and prosperity 
of the country, and the increase in other Catholic- Amer- 
ican countries, I suppose the increase must have been 
about 20 per cent, during each ten years, from the year 
1800 until the year i860, and probably more than that 
since i860; by the reason of the impetus recently 
given to industry by steam navigation and railroads. 

My estimates of the population, exclusive of uncivil- 
ized and independent Indians, are as follows : 

Years. Population. Years. Population. 



I800 3,000,000 

I820 4,300,000 

I84O 6,250,000 

i860. ..... 9,000,000 



1 8 10 3,600,000 

1830 5,200,000 

1850 7,500,000 

1867 10,300,000 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. . 55 1 

Sec. 15. Table Illustrating the Progress of Population 
in different countries of America. 

Estimates, in round numbers,- of the population in 
1840 and i860 (exclusive of uncivilized Indians) of the 
following countries, and the percentage of increase dur- 
ing the twenty years : 

In 1840. In i860. Per cent, of Increase. 

Mexico 7,000,000 8,200,000 over 17 

Central America. 1,800,000 2,250,000 .... 25 

New Granada.... 1,875,000 2,600,000 nearly 39 

Venezuela 1,100,000 1,550,000 over 40 

Ecuador 760,000 1,060,000 nearly 40 

Peru 1,750,000 2,300,000 over 3 1 

Bolivia 1,400,000 1,750,000 25 

Chili 1,050,000 1,600,000 over 52 

Argentine Con- 
federation 840,000 1,250,000 over 48 

Paraguay (perhaps) 600,000* 1,000,000 over 66 

Uruguay 200,000 300,000 .... 50 

Brazil 6,250,000 9,000,000 44 

Indians uncivilized 1,000,000 1,000,000 

Total 25,625,000 33,860,000 over 32 

United States 17,069,453 31,443,322! over 84 

It is supposed that not more than three-tenths of the 
civilized inhabitants of these Catholic-American coun- 
tries, or less than 10,000,000, are of pure European de- 
scent ; one-twentieth part of African descent ; two and a 
half tenths mongrels, or mixed breeds : and four-tenths 
pure Indians ; besides the uncivilized Indians who live 
mostly by hunting, fishing, and upon the wild fruits and 
spontaneous productions of the earth. 

Sec. 16. General Remarks — Steam Navigation and 
Railroads — and their influence. 
Steam navigation was not much introduced into the 

* The population of Paraguay is totally uncertain ; much more so than 
even Peru and Bolivia. 
I f Exclusive of about 300,000 Indians. 



552 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

rivers and upon the coasts of Central and South Amer- 
ica, until after the discovery of gold in California ; which 
induced a great rush of emigration to that country, and 
the establishment of steam navigation companies by way 
of the Isthmus of Darien and Panama, and also through 
Lake Nicaragua, to carry passengers to California. 

The Panama Railroad across the isthmus was com- 
menced in 1850, and completed in January, 1855. It is 47J- 
miles in length, and cost about $7,500,000. Since that 
time about 1,682 miles of railroad were made and com- 
pleted in Catholic America and the West Indies prior to 
December 31st, 1866, viz. : In Venezuela, 32 miles ; in 
British Guiana, 60 miles ; in Brazil, 433 miles ; in Para- 
guay, 46 miles ; in the Argentine Republic, 231 miles ; 
in Chili, 337 miles; in Peru, 55 miles; in Mexico, 78 
miles ; in the island of Cuba, 396 miles ; and in Jamaica, 
14 miles ; and steam navigation has been introduced 
along the coasts, and upon all the great rivers of those 
countries. 

Four great railway lines are in the process of construc- 
tion in Brazil; one of them extending into the country 
from Rio de Janeiro — the cost of which is estimated at 
$23,000,000 — to be built mostly with capital borrowed 
in England. The first 40 miles of it, constructed under 
the direction of an English engineer, was opened in 
March, 1858. Some of the sections are under the 
charge of engineers from the United States. 

The construction of railroads commenced a few years 
earlier in Chili than in Brazil, or any other country 
in South America, with the single exception of the Pan- 
ama road, which was built by a New York company, by 
American* engineers, and with American capital. 

The railways of Chili have been built mostly with 
European capital, by English and American engineers ; 
and England has supplied the iron, the locomotives, and 
the most of the mechanics employed ; the laborers of 
the country doing the grading and the common work. 
The natives are capable of learning by observation and 
imitation, under the instruction of others ; and the re- 

* The words American and Americans are very generally used in a re- 
stricted sense, as applying only to persons born in the United States. 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 553 

suit has been, that many natives have thus acquired 
knowledge and skill as mechanics, engineers, and busi- 
ness men, in the construction, management, and operat- 
ing of railroads. This new element of activity and in- 
tercourse has had great influence upon the native mind, 
and upon industry in many countries of South America 
— and more particularly upon Chili and Brazil ; and 
steam navigation has had a similar influence. They have 
co-operated to stimulate the public mind, to awaken en- 
terprise, to promote industry and commerce, to bring the 
people into contact with more highly cultivated people 
of other nations, and to raise them in the scale of civili- 
zation. By such means they acquire new ideas, a 
knowledge of new arts, of new instruments and imple- 
ments of industry, and of new methods and processes. 

Wherever the railroad or steam vessel goes, the coun- 
try is permeated with a fruitful element of progress. 
Wherever they go, engineers and skilled mechanics 
must go, as living agents to construct and operate them, 
— the most of whom are Protestants, and require Pro- 
testant churches and Protestant schools ; and Catholic 
governments and peoples find it necessary to relax their 
sectarian restrictions and prohibitions, and to establish 
some degree of toleration. By such instrumentalities, 
considerable progress has been made in Catholic Amer- 
ica, and the whole country will be gradually liberalized 
and improved. 

It should be remembered, to the credit of the Span- 
ish and Portuguese colonists, and the Catholic mission- 
aries and Catholic policy, that they have been the means 
of changing the habits of life, and of civilizing more 
than twenty millions of American Indians and mixed 
breeds ; while the Anglo-Saxon and German colonists 
and peoples, have scarcely exerted any favorable in- 
fluence upon the mind, the character, or the habits of 
life of more than 120,000 of the descendants of the 
aborigines of our country. 

The English, Scotch, and German colonists to Amer- 
ica, had no regard, and scarcely any feelings of humanity 
for the aborigines ; they treated the Indians as savages, 
whose condition was nearly hopeless — as a race so de- 

24 



554 CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

graded that it was not profitable to have much intercourse 
with them ; intermarriages of the whites with them has 
been generally regarded as degrading, and in some of the 
colonies and States prohibited by law ; and no efforts 
have been made to subject them to law — to throw over 
and around them the protecting and civilizing agencies 
and influences of law — to incorporate them into the soci- 
ety of the white people as laborers and citizens — to re- 
strain their vagrant habits — and to teach them industry 
by a system moderately and humanely coercive, as the 
youth of all civilized countries are taught to labor. 

In nearly all these particulars, the sons of Africa im- 
ported into the American colonies and States, and sold as 
chattel slaves, were treated with more humanity than the 
Indians ; for they were subjected to law and its civilizing 
and protecting agencies. Law is the great civilizing 
agent of the world. Even the gospel is powerless with- 
out law, and a regular administration of justice. The 
Negroes as slaves were taught to labor and habits of in- 
dustry, restrained from vagrancy, idleness and dissipation, 
and furnished such food, clothing, and housing, and with 
medical attendance and nursing in case of sickness, as to 
render them healthy, and much more comfortable than 
any savage or barbarous people upon the earth. Their 
physical comforts and condition have been such, that they 
have increased rapidly in numbers ; while the sufferings, 
dissipation, and wars of the Indians, have caused them 
to decrease in numbers, and to decline in power. 

The Catholic colonists and States have pursued a very 
different policy. They have regarded the Indians as 
members of the human family — as having capacities for 
improvement as well as souls to be saved ; and hence 
they mingled with the Indians, intermarried with them, 
subjected them to their laws as laborers and subjects, or 
citizens ; taught them many of the useful arts, and how 
to work, and habits of industry ; improved their physical 
as well as mental condition ; restrained them from wars 
among themselves ; raised them in the scale of civiliza- 
tion ; and converted them into peaceable, quiet, and 
reasonably industrious citizens. The result of the Cath- 
olic policy is, that the Indians and mixed breeds of the 



CATHOLIC AMERICA. 555 

Catholic nations of America now number more than 
twenty millions ; while among the Protestant peoples of 
the United States and the British Provinces, they num- 
ber but little over half a million. The question arises, 
which is the humane and Christian, and which the 
worldly and selfish policy ? 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

Sec. i. Tables of the Population of the United States 
from 1790 to i860. 

I. Statement of the population of the several States 
and groups of States, according to the census of 1790. 
The free colored class includes all free persons of African 
or partially African descent — blacks as well as mulat- 
toes : 

White. Free Colored. Slaves. Total. 

Maine* 96,002 538 96,540 

New Hampshire 141,111 630 158 141,899 

Vermont* 85,144 255 17 85,416 

Massachusetts 373, 254 5,463 378,717 

Rhode Island 64,689 3,469 952 69,110 

Connecticut 232,581 2,801 2,759 238,141 

New England 992,781 13,156 3,886 1,009,823 

New York 314,142 4,654 21,324 340,120 

New Jersey 169,954 2,762 11,423 184,139 

Pennsylvania 424,099 6,537 3,737 434,373 

908,195 13,953 36,484 958,632 

Delaware 46,310 3,899 8,887 59,°96 

Maryland 208,649 8,043 103,036 319,728 

Virginia 442,115 12,766 293,427 748,308 

North Carolina 288,204 4,975 100,572 393,751 

Tennessee* 32,013 361 3,417 35,79 J 

Kentucky* 61,133 JI 4 11,830 73,°77 

Northern Slave States.. .1,078,424 30,158 521,169 1,629,751 

South Carolina 140,178 1,801 107,094 249,073 

Georgia 52,886 398 29,264 82,548 

United States 3,172,464 59,466 697,897 3,929,827 

59,466 

Total Colored 757,3^>3 

* Vermont and Kentucky were admitted as States in 1 794, Tennessee 
in 1796, and Maine in 1820. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



557 



II. Statement of the white, free colored, and slave 
population of the several States and groups of States, 
according to the census of i860; and the aggregate 
population in i860, and also in 1850: 



White. 

Maine 626,952 

N. Hampshire . 325,579 

Vermont 314,389 

Massachusetts . 1,221,464 

Rhode Island. . . 170,668 

Connecticut 45 1 , 5 20 



New England.. 3,110,572 

New York 3,831,730 

New Jersey 646,699 

Pennsylvania . . 2,849,266 



Mid. free States. 7,327,695 

Ohio 2,302,838 

Indiana 1,339,000 

Illinois . . . 1,704,323 

Michigan 742,314 

Wisconsin 774,710 

Iowa 673,844 

Minnesota 171,864 

Kansas 106,579 

California *. 361,353 

Nebraska f 28,759 

Oregon 52,337 

6,812 



Nevadaf. 





Aggregate in 


Free Col'd. 


Slaves. i860. 


1850. 


1,327 


628,279 


583,169 


494 


326,073 


317,976 


709 


315,098 


314,120 


9,602 


1,231,066 


994,5H 


3,952 


174,620 


147,545 


8,627 


460,147 


370,792 


24,711 


.... 3,135,283 


2,728,116 


49,005 


.... 3,880,735 


3,097,394 


25,318 


18 672,035 


489,555 


56,849 


.... 2,906,115 
18 7,458,885 


2,311,786 


131,172 


5,898,735 


36,673 


.... 2,339,511 


1,980,329 


11,428 


.... i,35 ,428 


988,416 


7,628 


.... i,7n,95i 


851,470 


6,799 


749,113 


397,654 


1,171 


.... 775,88i 


305,391 


1,069 


674,913 


192,214 


259 


172,123 


6,077 


625 


2 107,206 




4,086 


365,439 


9 2 ,597 


67 


15 28,841 




128 


52,465 


13,294 


45 


6,857 





8,264,733 69,978 17 8,334,728 4,827,442 



Free States 18,703,000 225,861 



35 18,928,896 13,454,293 



Delaware 90,589 

Maryland 515,918 

Dist. Columbia . 60,764 

West Virginia.. 334,853 

Kentucky 919,517 

Missouri 1,063,509 



19,829 1,798 
83,942 87,189 
11,131 3,185 

1,966 12,658 
10,684 225,483 

3,572 114,931 



112,216 

687,049 

75,080 

349,477 
1,155,684 
1,182,012 



91,532 

583,034 

51,687 

275,125 
982,405 
682,044 



Border Slave 

States 2,985,150 



131,124 445,244 3,56i,5i8 2,665,827 



* 23,348 Chinese are included, of whom only 963 are females, 
t Nebraska and Nevada have been admitted as States since i860. 



558 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

Aggregate in 

White. Free Col'd. Slaves. i860. 1850. 

Virginia 7i2,55 8 56,076 478,207 1,246,841 1,146,536 

North Carolina 631,100 30,463 331,059 992,622 869,039 

Tennessee 826,782 7,300 275,719 1,109,801 1,002,717 

Arkansas 324,19! J 44 i","5 435,45° 209,597 

South Carolina. 291,388 9,914 402,406 703,708 668,507 

Georgia 591,588 3,500 462,198 1,057,286 906,185 

Florida 77,748 932 61,745 140,425 87,445 

Alabama 526,431 2,690 435,080 964,201 771,623 

Mississippi.... 353,9 01 773 436,631 79 J ,305 606,526 

Louisiana 357,629 18,647 331,726 708,002 517,762 

Texas 421,294 355 182,566 604,215 212,592 



Seceding States 5,114,610 130,7943,508,452 8,753,856 6,998,529 

Colorado 34,231 46 34,277 

Dacota 2,576 2,576 

New Mexico... 82,924 85 83,009 61,547 

Utah 40,214 30 29 40,273 11,380 

Washington 11,138 30 11,168 

Territories 171,083 191 29 171,303 72,927 



United States .26,973,843 487,970 3,953,76o 31,4*5,573 23,i9 r ,576 
Indians included 
in the census.* 27,749 



31,443,322 

III. Statement of the aggregate population of the 
several States and groups of States, according to the 
censuses of 1800, 1820, and 1840: 

1800. 1820. 1840. 

Maine 151,719 298,335 5°i,793 

New Hampshire 183,762 244,161 284,574 

Vermont I544 6 5 235,764 291,948 

Massachusetts 423,245 523,287 737,699 

Rhode Island 69,122 83,059 108,830 

Connecticut 251,002 275,202 309,978 

New England I , 2 33,3i5 1,659,808 2,234,822 

* The census of i860 includes 14,555 Indians in California, 10,507 in 
New Mexico, 2,261 in Dakotah, and 426 in Utah. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 559 

1800. 1820. 1840. 

New York ' 586,756 1,372,812 2,428,921 

New Jersey 21 1,949 277,575 373,3o6 

Pennsylvania 602,361 1,049,458 1,724,033 

Middle States 1,401,066 2,699,845 4,526,260 

Ohio 45^65 58i,434 1,519467 

Indiana 4,875 147,178 685,866 

Illinois 55,2H 476,183 

Michigan 8,896 212,267 

Wisconsin 3°, 945 

Iowa 43,112 



N. W. States 50,240 79 2 ,7i9 2,967,840 



Free States 2,684,621 5,152,372 9,728,922 

Delaware 64,273 72,749 78,085 

Maryland 341,548 407,350 470,019 

District of Columbia. . . 14,093 33,°39 43, 712 

Virginia 880,200 1,065,379 1,239,797 

North Carolina 478,103 638,829 753,4 J 9 

Tennessee 105,602 422,813 829,210 

Kentucky 220,955 5 6 4,3!7 779,828 

Missouri 66,586 383,702 

Arkansas 14,273 97,574 



N. Slave States 2,104,774 3, 2 85,335 4,675.346 

South Carolina 345,591 502,741 594,398 

Georgia 162,101 340,987 691,392 

Florida 54,477 

Alabama 127,901 59°,756 

Mississippi 8,850 75,448 375,651 

Louisiana 153,407 35 2 ,4i 1 

Texas 



S. Slave States 516,542 1,200,484 2,659,085 

Slave States 2,621,316 4,485,819 7,334,431 

In the Naval Service. . . 6, 100 



United States 5>305,937 9> 6 3 8 ,i9i 17,069,453 

The area of each State, and the number of inhabitants 
therein, according to the enumerations of 18 10 and 1830, 
and the population of the colonies at different periods, 
are stated in vol. i., page 578 to 586. 



560 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

Sec. 2. Emigration to the United States ; and natural 
increase of the poptilation. 

Statement of the number of passengers of foreign 
birth that came to the United States by sea, during the 
undermentioned periods : 

Year ending Sept. 30, 1820 8,385 

10 years to Sept. 30, 1830 143,439 

io\ years to Dec. 31, 1840 599,125 

10 years to Dec. 31, 1850 1,713,251 

10 years to Dec. 31, i860 2,598,214 

Total in 41^- years 5,062,414 

From 1790 to 18 10 estimated at 120,000 

From 181 1 to Sept. 30, 18 19, estimated at 100,000 

Total in 70 years about 5,282,000 

Perhaps five per cent, of them returned to their native 
country, and thousands went to Canada ; but the number 
that came to the United States from Canada by land, 
greatly exceeded all that left here to settle in Canada or 
to return to their native country ; and the census of i860 
shows that of the upwards of five millions of emigrants 
to our country during the previous 70 years, 4,136,175 
were then living among us. 

Adjusting the number of foreign passengers arriving 
between the decennial periods of taking the census, 
shows the following numbers : 

10 years previous to June 1, 1840 552,000 

10 years previous to June 1, 1850 1,558,300 

10 years previous to June I, i860 2,707,624 

The most of them are young people. Great numbers 
of them are young married people that have children 
rapidly. 67f per cent, are between 1 5 and 40 years old, 
and only 10J per cent, over 40. 

They are here on an average five years, during the 
decennial period in which they arrive ; and their natural 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 56 1 

increase during that period must be from 10 to 12J per 
cent. 

White population in the United States in 1850 19,553,1 14 

Immigration to June 1, i860 '. 2,707,624 

Natural increase of the immigrants 10 per cent 270,600 

Natural increase of natives 22 T \ per cent 4,442,505 

White population, June 1, i860 26,973,843 

Free colored, June 1, 1850 434,449 

Free colored, June 1, i860 488,070 

Increase 54>62 1 

The census reports show that 1,467 slaves were 
manumitted in 1850, and 3,018 in i860. Probably over 
20,000 were manumitted during the ten years. The 
number of fugitive slaves that escaped from their mas- 
ters during the year preceding the census of 1850 was 
reported at 1,011, and at 803 during the year preceding 
the census of i860 ; indicating that the number must 
have exceeded 8,000 during the decennial period ending 
June 1, I860. 

Not over 2,500 free colored persons emigrated to 
Liberia and other countries during the ten years ; and 
the number was increased by the manumission of slaves 
during that period — about 20,000 — which shows that the 
natural increase was only about 32,000, or less than 8 per 
cent. With the anti-slavery agitation and the accession of 
considerable numbers of fugitive slaves, the increase in 
New England was only 2,377 — from 22,334 i* 1 1850, to 
24,711 in i860 — equal to only iOy^ per cent. 

The slaves in 1850 numbered 3,204,313 ; in i860, 
they had increased to 3,953,760 — increase 749,447, equal 
to 23^ per cent, over and above fugitives and manumis- 
sions, numbering at least 28,000, which would swell the 
natural increase to about 777,500 — equal to more than 
24 per cent. The curious fact is here shown, that while 
the natural increase of the free colored persons was less 
than 8 per cent., and that of the white population less 
than 23 per cent., the natural increase of slaves exceeded 
24 per cent. The slaves could not have suffered much 
from want of food, medical attendance, and other com- 
forts, or they could not have increased so rapidly. The 
next census will probably tell a tale that will astonish 

24* 



562 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

the theoretical and extreme Negro philanthropists of our 
country. 

The mixture of races is shown by the census of i860 
as follows : 

Free mulattoes reported 176,739 

Mulatto slaves reported 41 1,613 



Total mulattoes 588,352 

Emigration to the United States was checked by the 
war ; but has been very large since the close of the war. 
It has been as follows : 

Year ending Dec. 31, 186 1 89,820 

" " 1862 89,168 

" " " 1863 174,590 

" " " 1864 196,195 

" " 1865 248,401 

" " " 1866 313,875 

9 months ending Sept. 30, 1867 286,452 



Total in 6} years 1,398,501 

A census of the population of Michigan was taken in 
1864, and in several of the other States in 1865. The 
numbers reported were as follows, to which I have pre- 
fixed the numbers in i860, that the reader may see the 
increase : 



-Population in- 



1860. 1865. 

Massachusetts , . . 1,231,066 1,267,059 

Rhode Island 174,620 184,965 

New Jersey 672,035 773,7oo 

Michigan 749,1 13 803,745 

Illinois 1,71 1,95 1 2,141,5 10 

Wisconsin 775,88 1 868,937 

Iowa 674,913 754,732 

Minnesota 172,023 259,000 

Kansas 107,206 140,179 

Oregon 52,465 65,090 



6,321,273 7,258,917 

Increase in 10 States, 937,644 — over 14 per cent. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 563 

Sec. 3. Railroads, their influence, and their extent and 
cost, in the United States, at different periods. 

Steamboats upon our lakes and rivers, bays and sounds, 
canals and river and harbor improvements, and, most of 
all, railroads, have been powerful agencies in promoting 
the industry of the people, in settling the new States 
and Territories, and in developing the resources and im- 
proving all parts of our country. The rapid construction 
of railroads in the United States, and the very large 
amount of capital invested in them and their equipments, 
considering how new our country is, may be regarded 
among the wonders of the age. 

The progress of railroad construction, and the extent 
in miles of railroads in operation in the United States, 
have been as follows : 

In operation at the close of the year 1830. . 41 miles, 
do. do. do. 1840.. 3,319 " 

do. do. do. 1850.. 8,589 " 

do. do. do. 1 860.. 30, 792 • " 

do. do. do. 1867.-38,851 " 

besides 402 miles of street railways in cities, in i860. 

The aggregate cost of the roads in operation, and their 
equipments was as follows : 

At the end of the year 1850 $296,660,000 

do. do. i860 $1,151,560,000 

do. do. 1 86y $ 1,65 5,483,000 

The extent of railroads in different sections of the 
Union in 1850 and i860, and their cost, Dec. 31, i860, 
was as follows : 

< Miles. . /-< \i • a , 

1850. i860. Cost m l86 °' 

New England States 2,507 3,669 $148,366,000 

Five Middle Atlantic States. ..... .2,724 6,321 329,528,000 

Southern Atlantic States 1,717 5>454 141,739,000 

Four Gulf States 287 2,256 64,943,000 

Kentucky, Tennessee, and Arkansas 78 1,806 49,761,000 
Eight North-western States, includ- 
ing Missouri and Iowa 1,276 1 1,212 413,541,000 

California and Oregon — 74 3,680,000 

Total 8,589 30,792 $1,151,558,000 



564 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

The construction of railroads was generally suspended 
during the war ; but has been resumed since its close in 
1865, and been prosecuted with great vigor during the 
years 1866 and 1867. The great Union Pacific Railroad 
across the continent, from the Missouri River in Nebraska 
to San Francisco Bay, on the coast of the Pacific Ocean, 
has been pressed with wonderful vigor, and will be 
completed within two or three years. It will be the 
longest railroad, and perhaps the most gigantic work in 
the world. 

Steam vessels and railroads, to transport troops, pro- 
visions, and munitions of war, and steam gunboats, 
were terribly efficient agents in the prosecution of our 
great civil war to put down the rebellion and the Con- 
federate Government, and to restore the Union. The 
insurgents were deficient in such agencies, and overlook- 
ed their immense power, in calculating the chances of 
success. They looked back upon the revolution of 
1776, the methods of warfare then in use, and the success 
of the arms of the patriots aided by the French, and 
supposed their success was certain. Their reasoning 
was correct ; their premises only were deficient. If the 
Federal Government had had no agencies except those 
that were in operation during the 18th century, the suc- 
cess of the insurgents would have been certain ; the 
Confederate Government would have been maintained ; 
our Union would have been permanently dissolved, as 
that of Colombia was in 1831 ; and our country would 
have been divided into two or more hostile confederacies, 
frequently at war with each other. 

Steam navigation and railroads may be regarded as 
powerful agents to execute national law ; as efficient police 
agencies to put down insurrections and revolutionary 
movements ; as political agencies to maintain national 
laws, without great standing armies, and to preserve the 
peace of nations. 

Corporations, having numerous stockholders, extensive 
business relations and operations with great numbers of 
persons, furnishing employment and the means of sub- 
sistence to great numbers of persons and families, and 
intimately connected with the industry and business of 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



565 



a country, form not only commercial and industrial bonds 
of union, but also political bonds and peace agencies of 
great efficiency and power. If our Spanish-American 
neighbors ever enjoy permanent peace, and settle down 
quietly in the pursuits of peaceful industry, the change 
will come mostly from such agencies. 



Sec. 4. Tables showing the Mechanical, Manufacturing, 
and Mining industry of the United States. 

I. Number of manufacturing establishments, and sta- 
tistics of manufactures, and mechanical and mining in- 
dustry in different sections of the United States, during 
the year ending June 1, i860. 

No. of Capital Hands employed. 

Establishments. invested. Males. Females. 

New England States 20,671 $257,477,783 262,834 129,002 

Five Middle Atlantic ) 

States incl. the District > 53,287 435,061,964 432,424113,819 

of Columbia ) 

Eleven N. W. States incl. ) 

Kentucky, Missouri, >■ 36,785 194,212,543 194,081 15,828 

and Kansas ) 

E l V dT„ g S sS?e e s rn '.°. r . Se :[-. 6 3' 95,975,^5 98,583 1*138 

Two Pacific States 8,777 23,380,334 50,137 67 

Territories. . . , 282 3,747,906 2,290 43 

Aggregate i4<>,433 $1,009,855,715 1,040,349 270,897 

do. in 1850 123,025 533,245,351 73i,i37 225,922 



Cost of raw Cost of Value of 

materials. labor. products. 

New England States. . . $245,523,107 $104,231,472 $468,599,287 

Middle Atlantic States . 444,126,969 152,328,841 802,338,392 

N. Western States 225,618,813 63,573,307 384,606,530 

Southern States 86,543,152 28,681,195 I 55,53 I , 28r 

Pacific States 28,483,626 29,037,543 71,229,989 

Territories 1,309,425 1,026,608 3,556,197 

Aggregate $1,031,605,092 $378,878,966 $1,885,861,676 

do. in 1850 555,123,822 236,755,464 1,019,106,616 

Net value produced by capital and labor in i860 $854,256,584 

do. do. do. 1850 464,742,794 



566 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

This and the other tables do not include the products 
of small shops and establishments producing less than 
$500 each ; which would swell the gross products to 
more than $ 1,900,000,000. The lumber of the forests and 
the products of the cod, shad, whale, oyster, and x>thei 
fisheries, are included with manufacturing. 

II. Statement of the manufacture of cotton and wool- 
len goods in the United States, during the year ending 
June I, i860 — exclusive of carpeting and hosiery. 
(Mixed goods, part wool and part cotton, are included 
with the woollen goods.) 

Cotton. Woollen. 

Number of establishments 1,091 1,260 

Capital invested $98,585,269 $30,862,654 

Pounds of cotton and wool used 422,704,975 . 98,808,529 

Value of raw material $57,285,534 $36,586,887 

Number of spindles 5,235,727 

do. looms 126,313 

Average number of hands ) males. . . . 46,859 24,841 

employed ]" females.. 75, ^9 16,519 

Total cost of labor $23,940,108 $9,808,254 

Value of products $115,681,774 $61,895,217 

1 do. do. in 1850 $65,501,687 $43,542,288 

III. Statement of the value of the leading articles, 
other than cotton and woollen goods, manufactured dur- 
ing the years ending June 1, i860, and 1850. The 
quantities, number of establishments, and capital stated, 
are all for the year i860. 

Quantities. Value in i860. Value in 1850. 

Worsted goods yds . 22,750,000 $3,701,378 

Hosiery 7,280,606 $1,028,102 

Carpeting yds . 13,285,92 1 7,^57,636 5,402,634 

Calico-printing establishments. . 22 7,748,644 

Shirts and collars made 7,218,790 

Clothing for men 73,219,765 48,311,709 

Boots and shoes 91,891,498 53,967,408 

India-rubber goods 5,642,700 

Women's clothing 4,865,033 

Millinery work 4,543,284 

Millinery goods, artificial flowers, 

etc 1,483,154 

Sewing-silk, silk goods, laces, etc 6,607,791 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 567 

Quantities. Value In i860. Value in 1850. 

Linen goods $699,570 

Hemp and Manilla cordage, tons 40,346 7,843,339 

Hemp bagging yds. 9,540,000 1,109,628 

Paper tons 118,417 21,216,802 $10,187,177 

Wall paper 2,148,800 107,040 

Printing and publishing, No. est. 1,666 31,063,898 11,586,549 

Book-binding and blank books 3,729,080 3,255,678 

Musical instruments 6,548,432 2,580,715 

Hats and hat bodies No.16,25 1,000 16,665,475 

Caps No. 1,646,600 956,891 

Pig-iron tons 987,559 20,870,120 13,491,898 

Bar and other rolled iron. .. tons 513,213 31,888,705 15,938,786 

Iron wire tons 10,670 1,643,857 

Iron forging 1,907,460 

Iron castings 36,968,346 

Sewing-machines 4,247,820 

Fire-arms 2,342,681 

Hardware 10,903, 106 

Cutlery and manufacture of steel 9,151,893 

Nails and spikes 9,857,223 7,662,144 

Blacksmithing 11,641,223 16,048,536 

Brick establishments 1,595 IO > 2 53>734 

Salt bushels. 1 2,7 1 7,200 2,289,504 

Agricultural implements 18,640,275 7,500,000 

Distilled liquors gals.88,002,988 26,768,225 

Malt liquors bbls. 3,239,545 21,310,933 

Anthracite coal tons 8,115,842 11,874,574) 

Bituminous coal tons 6,218,080 8,369,063 } 7 ' 7 3>'5 

Copper ore tons 14,432 3,316,516 

Number of Capital 

establishm. employed. 

Carpentery 1,323 12,646,392 $3,251,327 

Carriages 3,917 26,848,905 14,131,537 

Cars, Omnibuses, and repairing 4,302,613 2,953,717 

Chemicals 84 $4,705,741 $3,276,800 

Cigars 1,478 9,068,778 3,°35o55 

Confectionery 541 5,361,100 1,568,478 

Cooperage 2,707 11,343,221 4,353,203 

Coppersmithing 10 4,945,360 1, 535, 000 

Cotton braid, thread, and yarn . 191 6,569,093 4,239,000 

Dyeing and bleaching 102 3,967,819 2,321,421 

Fisheries i,97o 14,284,405 17,919,959 

Flour and meal 13,868 248,580,365 84,585,004 

Furniture and cabinet work. . . . 3,594 25,632,293 13,629,526 

Furs 95 3,H5,755 1,163,600 

Illuminating gas. . , 221 12,016,353 28,848,726 

Glass 112 8,775,155 6,133,666 

Gold mining 7,202 47,163,170 12,006,791 

Gunpowder 58 3,223,000 2,305,700 



568 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 






Iron steamships . . rf 

Jewelry 

Lead mining and smelting 

Lead manufacture 

Leather 

Morocco, patent and enamelled. 

Lime 

Locomotive engines 

Lumber sawed 

Lumber planed 

Machinery for cotton and wool . 

Steam-engines 

Marble and stone work 

Medicines, extracts, and drugs . 

Fish, whale, and other oil 

Kerosene oil 

Lard and linseed oil 

Plumbing and gas-fitting 

Pottery and stoneware 

Saddlery and harness 

Fire-proof safes 

Sash doors and blinds 

Ship and boat building 

Silver mining 

Silver, manufactures of 

Silver, plated and britannia ware 

Soap and candles 

Straw goods 

Sugar-refining 

Tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware 

Tobacco and snuff 

Trunks, carpet-bags, and valises 
Turning, scroll sawing, and 

moulding 

Turpentine distilled 

Type and stereotype founding . . 

Umbrellas and parasols 

Upholstery 

Varnish 

Wagons and carts 

Watches and watch repairing. . . 

White lead 

Wooden ware 

Wool-carding and cloth-dressing 



The report of the census of i860 includes about 520 
other branches of mechanical and manufacturing in- 
dustry, mostly comparatively small ; but some of them 



Number of 


Value 


Capital 


establishm. 


of products. 


employed. 


I 


$914,700 


$190,000 


463 


10,415,811 


5,180,723 


64 


1,176,875 


359,802 


14 


3,l66,029 


1,739,963 


5,040 


67,306,452 


35,655,370 


135 


8,012,023 


3,252,800 


714 


3,798,505 


2,014,931 


19 


4,866,900 


3,482,502 


19,699 


93,338,606 


72,503,894 


466 


11,589,736 


4,138,996 


192 


4,902,704 


2,492,088 


1,177 


46,757,486 


33,392,080 


I,8o6 


16,244,044 


8,864,675 


173 


3,465,594 


1,977,385 


48 


6,099,377 


1,968,201 


14 


2,142,693 


2,085,000 


123 


8,534,353 


3,105,500 


221 


2,113,701 


797,470 


557 


2,463,681 


1,341,774 


3,621 


14,169,037 


6,478,184 


36 


1,910,079 


1,026,800 


986 


9,589,007 


5,419,487 


614 


11,667,661 


5,472,815 


6 


1,040,000 


694,000 


106 


3,571,654 


1,712,050 


128 


3,676,460 


1,537,540 


614 


18,464,574 


6,347,158 


39 


4,395,6i6 


1,256,700 


39 


42,143,234 


9,087,600 


3,488 


16,718,388 


9,079,766 


626 


21,820,535 


9,494,405 


IS 


2,836,269 


935,800 


253 


2,084,325 


988,328 


596 


6,423,379 


4,077,258 


32 


1,276,570 


I,II3,6oO 


66 


2,948,302 


1,038,890 


199 


2,920,188 


740,330 


48 


2,402,790 


1,080,650 


3,305 


8,703,937 


4,591,968 


94 


1,524,700 


775,611 


36 


5,38o,347 


2,453,147 


229 


2,108,656 


1,103,770 


712 


2,403,513 


1,080,985 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 569 

producing values exceeding a million of dollars each, an- 
nually. The tables and the census report show the 
growth, the diversity and numerous branches, and the 
great importance of the mechanical, manufacturing, and 
mining industry of the United States. The war aided 
in building up and increasing the magnitude of nearly 
all those branches of industry, and they are vastly larger 
now than they were in i860. Such immense interests ; 
employing more than 1,310,000 persons, producing net 
values exceeding $854,000,000, and furnishing the means 
of support to one-fifth part of all the inhabitants of the 
United States, are worthy of the consideration of Con- 
gress, and of the constant fostering care of the govern- 
ment. Such vast interests should not be borne down, 
crippled, and destroyed by excessive taxation — for the 
unnecessary purpose of paying off the national debt 
rapidly. This generation has suffered enough to preserve 
the integrity of the Union ; let the coming generation, who 
will inherit the advantages of their efforts, pay off the en- 
cumbrance. 



Sec. 5. Tables of the agricultural statistics of the United 

States. 

I. Statement of the various classes of agricultural 
capital in the United States, and the value thereof, June 
1, 1850, and June 1, i860, as reported in the census. 

1850. i860. 

Improved lands in farms acres. 113,032,614 163,110,720 

Unimproved lands in farms .. . do. 180,528,000 244,101,720 

Lands in farms do. 293,560,614 407,212,440 

Value of farms $3,271,575,000 $6,645,045,000 

Farming implements and machinery $151,587,000 $246,118,141 

Horses and colts No. 4,336,719 6,249,174 

Asses and mules " 559,331 1,151,148 

Milch cows " 6,385,094 8,581,735 

Working oxen " 1,700,744 2,254,91 1 

Other horned cattle " 10,293,069 I 4 5 779>373 

Sheep " 21,723,220 22,471,275 

Swine " 3o,354 2I 3 33,512,867 

Value of live stock $544,180,000 $1,089,329,915 

Capital employed in farming $3,966,342,000 $7,980,493,056 



570 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

II. Statement of the agricultural products of the 
United States, during the year ending June I, 1850, and 
June 1, i860, according to the census reports. 

1850. i860. 

Wheat bush. 100,485,944 173,104,924 

Rye " 14,188,813 21,101,380 

Indian corn " 592,071,104 838,792,740 

Oats " 146,584,179 172,643,185 

Rice lbs. 215,313,497 187,167,032 

Tobacco " 199,7 '52,655 434,209,361 

Cotton bales of 400 lbs. 2,445,793 5,3 8 7>o5 2 

Wool lbs. 52,516,959 60,264,913 

Pease and beans bush. 9,219,901 15,061,995 

Irish potatoes ' { 65,797,896 111,148,867 

Sweet potatoes " 38,268, 148 42,095,026 

Barley " 5,167,015 15,825,898 

Buckwheat " 8,956,912 17,571,818 

Orchard products. . .' value of $7,723,186 $19,991,885 

Wine gals. 221,249 1,627,242 

Market garden products value of $5,280,030 $16,159,498 

Butter.... lbs. 3i3,345,3°6 459,681,372 

Cheese " 105,535,893 103,663,927 

Hay tons 13,838,642 19,083,896 

Clover seed bush. 468,978 956,188 

Grass seed " 416,831 900,040 

Hops lbs. 3,497,029 10,991,996 

Hemp tons 34,871 75,593 

Flax ." lbs. 7,709,676 4,720,145 

Flax seed bush. 562,312 566,867 

Silk cocoons lbs. 10,843 l ^944 

Maple sugar " 34,253,436 40,120,205 

Cane sugar hhds of 1,000 lbs. 236,814 230,982 

Molasses, cane gals. 12,700,991 14,963,996 

Maple and sorghum do " 8,346,712 

Beeswax and honey lbs. 14,853,790 24,689.144 

Home manufactures value $27,493,644 $24,546,876 

Animals slaughtered " $111,703,142 $213,618,692 

Three-fourths of the hay and corn, oats and Irish po- 
tatoes, were fed to the horses and working cattle to raise 
the crops, and to other animals, and are included in the 
butter and cheese, wool, and the value of animals 
slaughtered. Deducting them and the seed sown to 
raise the crops, and allowing the estimated market price 
for the several crops at the places of production, or at 
the nearest market towns, and I make the aggregate 
value about $ 1,050,000,000. To which should be added 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 57 1 

the value of labor employed in clearing, fencing and sub- 
duing new lands ; in draining lands and making per- 
manent improvements other than buildings (which are 
included with manufactured products) ; the increase of 
live stock, and the value of horses and working cattle, 
sold for purposes other than agriculture ; eggs and poultry ; 
the products of farm gardens, and the milk and cream 
consumed by farmers' families ; and lastly, the wood cut 
for fuel. These several items would swell the values 
produced by labor and capital employed in agriculture in 

i860 to an amount exceding $1,250,000,000 

in 1850 to about* 800,000,000 

and in 1840 to about * 580,000,000 

By reason of the increased facilities furnished by rail- 
roads, for the transportation of agricultural products and 
cattle to the Atlantic cities, they were worth from 50 to 
200 per cent, more in the Western States in i860, than 
they were in 1840 ; and lands were raised in value, in a 
corresponding manner, as is shown by table I. 

III. The numbers of persons employed to produce such 
an amount of values, are stated in the census reports as 
follows ; for 

1850. i860. 

Farmers 2,363,958 2,423,895 

Planters 27,055 85,561 

Farm laborers 1609,786 795,679 

Total 3,000,799 3,305,135 

IV. Statement of the aggregate number of acres of 
improved and unimproved lands in farms ; 1, in the free 
States and territories ; 2, in the border States of Delaware, 

* See vol. i., pages 453 and 454, and also pages 624 to 626. The 
estimates on pages 625 and 626 are too low, and do not include 
wood cut for fuel, at either period. 

t No distinction is made in the census of 1850, between agri- 
cultural and other laborers ; and 300,000 have been deducted from 
the number reported, for non-agricultural laborers. 



572 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, and the District of 
Columbia ; 3, in the 1 1 seceding States of * Virginia, 
Tennessee, and Arkansas, and the States south of them. 
Also the aggregate value, and the number and size of 
the farms in each division. 

Free States. Border States. Seceding States. 

Improved lands 88,730,678 17,547,885 56,832,157 

Unimproved lands . . 72,983,311 27,474,315 143,644,192 

Total quantity 161,713,989 45,022,200 200,476,349 

Cash value $4,091,818,132 $702,518,382 $1,850,708,493 

Av. value per acre .. . $25.30 $15.60 $9.28 

Agricult'l implements $142,077,802 $21,068,903 $82,971,436 

Livestock $574,067,208 $133,484,109 $381,778,598 

Agricultural capital.. $4,807,963, 142 $857,071,394 $2,315,458,527 

Average value of farms per acre in District of Columbia. . . .$87.24 

do. do. do. Nebraska 6. 14 

The last table illustrates very forcibly the influence of 
density of population, distance from markets, and rail- 
road facilities, and lastly of manufacturing industry and 
large cities, upon the value of lands ; and the first table 
shows particularly the influence of railroads. Though 
the farms in the United States increased in numbers, and 
in the aggregate number of acres less than 30 per cent., 
between the years 1850 and i860, they more than doubled 
in value ; as is shown in table I. 

V. Number and classes as to size of farms and plan- 
tations, including unimproved timber and swamp lands 
embraced in farms ; in the 

Farms. Acres. Free States. Border States. Seceding States. 

of 3 and under 10 36,402 4,745 J 3,5 2 9 

10 do. 20 102,735 I 7A39 42,004 

20 do. 50 406,048 64,810 145,700 

50 do. 100 429,419 55,574 121,883 

100 do. 500 271,537 57,579 157,925 

500 do. 1000 3,387 1,863 15,069 

over 1000 792 297 4,275 

Whole number 1,250,320 204,307 500,385 

Whole number in the United States and Territories 1,955,012 



* West Virginia is included with Virginia. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 573 

VI. Number of the different classes of slaveholders in 
i860. 

Slaveholders. 

Persons having i slave each . / 77,333 

"- " 2 slaves each 46,165 



from 3 to 5 slaves each . 


88,116 


6 to 9 
" 10 to 19 


u 

if 


it 
it 


65,278 
61,710 


" 20 to 49 

" 50 to 99 

" 100 to 299 

300 and under 

500 and under 


It 
it 
ft 

500 

IOOO 


if 
it 
ft 

each . . 
n 


35,623 

8,367 
2,204 

74 
13 


over 1000. . . . 






1 











Whole number of slaveholders 384,884 

Whole number of slaves 3,953,742 

The invention of the cotton gin, and the increased 
culture of cotton, produced a rapid increase in the value 
of slaves. In 1790 their average value (including old 
and young) was about $100 each ; in 1820 it was about 
$200 each ; in 1840, $350 each ; and in i860 about $500 
each — making their aggregate value in 1862 about 
$2,000,000,000. 



Sec. 6. Aggregate values produced in 1840, 18 50, and 

i860. 

The values produced by commerce, navigation and 
transportation, as estimated in vol. i. (pages 459 and 
460) for the years 1840, are about i6J- per cent, of the 
aggregate income of the country. Adding banking and 
insurances, which are agents of commerce and transporta- 
tion, and they would swell the amount to at least 18 per 
cent. By means of railroads the internal transporta- 
tion business of the United States was perhaps more 
than four times as great in i8j5o, as it was in 1840; 
whereby the relative proportion of income from com- 
merce and navigation, transportation, banking and 
insurance, was increased from 18 to over 20 per cent., 



574 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

and upon that basis they are estimated in the following 
table. 

Statements and estimates, founded upon the census 
reports, of the values produced in the United States, 
during the under-mentioned years, ending June, stated in 
millions of dollars and fractions. 

1850. i860. 

Mining, making iron, castings, > 

salt, &c > 

Manufactures and mechanic arts. 
Flouring and saw mills, and oil mills 

The forest, except fuel 14-76 25 

The fisheries 10.33 1 1 

Agriculture and fuel exclusive ) 8q goo 

of mineral coal \ J 

Commerce and navigation, 

transportation and banking, V 188 300 526 

&c 




$854 



Total $1,040 $1,600 $2,630 

Amount to each person $60.87 $69 $83.63 

The foregoing table includes only commercial values, 
inherent in material and tangible products, which are the 
subjects of sale and delivery. It does not include the 
rent, or use of dwelling-houses, furniture, household 
labor, teaching, or labors in the legal, medical, or military 
profession, the ministry, or in any public service. 

Sec. 7. ^ Production of Gold and Silver in the United 
States. 

Statement of the entire deposits of domestic Gold at 
the mint of the United States, and the branches thereof, 
from 1804 to June 30, 1867; and the amount of Silver 
of domestic production deposited from January 1, 1841, 
to June 30, 1867. 

Gold. Silver. 

Gold parted from silver .... $3,664,547 

Silver parted from gold $5,1 14,400 

From Virginia 1,580,389 

" North Carolina. ..... 9,344,933 41,888 

Carried forward $14,589,869 $5,156,288 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 575 

Gold. Silver. 

Brought forward $14,589,869 $5,156,288 

From South Carolina 1,354,865 

" Georgia 7,000,440 404 

" Alabama 202,172 

" Tennessee 81,407 

" Utah 82,886 

" Nebraska 3,645 

" Colorado 13,382,232 963 

" California . . . « 597,899,964 9,446 

" Montana 1^,867,876 19,095 

" Arizona 105,670 29,074 

" New Mexico 85,460 1,271 

" Oregon 9,203,014 1,764 

" Nevada 171,926 3,717,476 

" Washington 61,260 ...... 

" Dakotah 7,959 

" Vermont 614 

" Idaho 13,164,433 199,129 

" Other sources 1 1,675,626 bars 26,987 

" Lake Superior 183,383 



Total amount $682,941,318 $9,345,280 

In fiscal year 1867. . . 30,805,749 1,056,680 

Only $12,808,575 of the gold was deposited prior to 
1848, and $670,132,743 during the 19J years from 1848 
to July 1, 1867. 

Nearly all the productions of the mines are deposited 
at the Mints and Assay Offices, to be made into coin, or 
refined and made into bars, and bullion ; and hence the 
reports of the mints present the most reliable evidence 
we have, of the amount produced by the mines. 



Sec. 8. Amount of Gold, Silver, and Copper coined in 
the United States. 

Statement of the amount of gold, silver, and copper 
coined in the United States, during the under-mentioned 
periods, from 1793 to June 30, 1867. 



576 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



8 yea 

10 
IO 
10 
IO 
IO 

9 J yea 
7 


Periods. 

irs to I 
t 

t 

i 
i 

a 

rsto J 


)ec. 
u 

a 
a 
a 
n 

une 

a 


3i, 
a 

a 

a 
u 
a 

30, 


1800. . 
1810. . 
1820. . 
1830.. 
1840. . 
1850.. 
i860.. 
1867.. 


Gold. 
. . $I,OI4,290 
3,250,742 
3,166,510 

1,903,093 
. . 18,791,862 
. . 89,443,328 
. . 470,838,181 
. . 296,967,464 


74i y 
Made 


ears. . . 


. .$88^,37^,470 


info ca 


Din. 
ars. 






. . 677,989,061 


Made into b 






. . 207,386,409 



Gold made into coin and bars, or bullion 
Copper coined during the 74J years 



Silver. 
$1,440,455 

3,569,165 

5,970,8ll 

l6,78l,047 

27,199779 
22,226,755 
48,087,763 
12,638,732 

,137,914,507 

133,214,123 

4,700,460 

885,375,470 

7,415,164 



Total coinage $1,030,705,141 



Sec 9. State and local taxation for 1859, as reported in 
the census of i860. 

State taxes $24,500,891 

County taxes 19,212,224 

City taxes 2 1,002,687 

Town taxes 3,873,296 

School taxes 12,064,862 

Poor taxes 2,675,046 

Road taxes 5,990,652 

Miscellaneous taxes 4,336,43 1 



Aggregate reported $93,666,089 

Estimated deficiences 6,333,911 



Total amount $100,000,000 



The expenses of the State, county and municipal 
governments, and of the schools, have been greatly in- 
creased by the issue of, or superabundant amount of 
paper money, or currency, and its depreciation by reason 
of its redundancy. They have been increased also by 
the large debts contracted to raise their quotas of men 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 577 

during the war, and the necessity of increased taxation 
to pay them, and the interest thereon. 

Sec. io. Public debt, taxation and revenues, and expen- 
ditures of the governme7it of the United States. 

I. Public debt of the Federal Government at the under- 
mentioned periods, and the amounts paid for interest 
and upon the principal thereof, during the undermen- 
tioned years — stated in round numbers, in millions of 
dollars, and fractions of millions. 

Public Debt. Interest Paid. Paid on Price. 

1800, January i $82.gy6 $3-374 $1.2 

1810, " 53.17 2.845 5-i6 

1816, " 127.334 7.21 17.66 

1820, " 91.015 5.13 3.5 

1830, " 48.565 1.91 9?44 

1840, " 5.125 .17 3.91 

1850, Dec. 1 64.228 3.884 3.55 

i860, July 1 64.769 3.144 13.9 

1861, " , 90.867 4.034 18.81 

1862, " 514.21 13.19 ^96.09 

1863, " 1,098.79 24.73 *i8i.o8 

1864, " 1,740.69 53.685 *430.i9 

1865, " 2,682.59 77-397 ^607.36 

1865, Sept. 1 2,845.626 

1866, July 1 2,783.425 133.067 ^620.32 

1867, " 2,692.199 143.781 

1868, January 1 2,642.326 

The debt reached its highest point Sept. 1, 1865. On 
the 1st of January, 1868, it consisted of 

Bonds bearing coin interest $1,890,102,091 

Bond, notes, &c, bearing currency interest 328,491,230 
Matured debt not presented for payment. 15,871,641 

Carried forward $2,234,464,962 

* The payments made on the principal of the debt, during the years 
1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866, were from the products of loans and 
treasury notes. 

25 



578 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

Brought forward $2,234,464,962 

Debt bearing no interest — U. States notes 356,159,127 

Fractional currency 3 1,597,584 

Gold certificate debts 20,104,580 



Total debt of the United States $2,642,326,253 

The United States notes bearing no in- 
terest, and fractional currency, in circu- 
lation January 1, 1867, amounted to. . . . 409,230,654 

January 1, 1868, as above stated 387,756,71 1 

II. Statement of the revenues from customs, or duties 
on imports, and the whole amount of the revenues of the 
United States, during the under-mentioned fiscal years — 
including all the receipts except from loans and treasury 
notes ; also all the ordinary expenditures, including all 
the expenditures of the government, except for interest 
and payments upon the national debt — stated in millions 
of dollars, and fractions of millions. 

Years. 

1795 

1 8OO 

I8IO 

I8I4 

I8l6 

l820 

I830 

1833 

1 84O 

I846 

1847 

I85O 

i860 

I86l 

1862 

1863 

I864 

1865 



Customs. 


Whole Revenue. 


Expenditures. 


$5,588 


$6,114 


$4.35 


9.O8 


IO.848 


7.41 


8.58 


9-38 


5.31 


6. 


11. 18 


*30.i27 


36.3 


47.677 


28.37 


15. 


17.84 


13.13 


21.92 


24.84 


13.229 


29. 


33-95 


22.71 


13.5 


19.48 


24.14 


26.71 


29.68 


126.418 


23-75 


26.53 


t53-8 


39-^7 


42.23 


37.166 


53-19 


56.05 


60.01 


39.58 


41.476 


62.537 


49.05 


51.936 


461.56 


69.06 


112.687 


689.98 


02.316 


264.626 


811.55 


8493 


333-71 


1,212.91 


79.04 


558.03 


3^68 


76.417 


490.63 


202.95 



* War from June, 1812, to January, 1815. 
t War with Mexico in 1846 and 1847. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 579 

III. The aggregate receipts of the internal revenue of 
the United States for the fiscal years ending June 30, 
were as follows : 



To June 30, 1864 ....$116,850,672 

" " 1865 211,129,529 

1866 310,906,984 

" " 1867 265,920,474 



IV. Statement of the amounts of the receipts of internal 
revenue, from the following classes and subdivision of 
classes, during the two last fiscal years, in thousands of 
dollars, to which the reader can add three ooo, and get 
the whole amounts, in round numbers. 

1866. 1867. 

1 Boots and shoes $6,5 1 7 $2,943 

2 Carriages, railroad cars, etc. . . 1,576 i,o°7 

3 Cigars, cigarettes, etc 3,476 3,662 

4 Tobacco 12,340 15,245 

5 Cloth, other than cotton or wool 595 1,518 

6 Clothing 12,028 3,196 

7 Cotton fabrics, yarn, etc 12,422 9,229 

8 Raw cotton 18,409 23,769 

9 Woollen manufactures 8,814 5?4°5 

10 Furniture and manufactures ") „ T -« 

ofwood \ 4 '54° V5° 

1 1 Gas — illuminating 1,843 1,835 

12 Iron and manufactures of iron. 12,801 5,823 

13 Machinery, steam engines, etc. 1,189 2,104 

14 Leather 5,385 3,445 

15 Liquors — distilled 29,198 29,151 

16 Liquors — fermented S^S 5fi 1 9 

17 Oil, coal, refined petroleum, etc. 5,317 4,9°5 

18 Paper of all descriptions 1,172 743 

19 Soap 1,326 727 

20 Sugar — refined 2,337 2,065 

21 Unenumerated manufactures . . 31,956! 20,882? 

Total manufactures and products. $178,356! $146,223? 

Taxes on animals slaughtered 1,291 262 

Taxes on gross receipts 11,202 7,445 

Taxes on sales 4,002 4,1 14 

Licenses 18,038 18,186 

Income of individuals 60,548 57,°4i 

Carried forward $273,497 $233,271 



58O THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

Brought forward $273,497 $233,27 1 

Salaries 3,717 1,03° 

Legacies and successions h l 7 l I ,^ > 5 

Billiard- tables, plate, carriages,) j6 6 

piano-fortes, watches, etc ( ' yj 

Banks, railroad companies, etc.. . . 12,633 9>99° 

Penalties 932 1,459 

Stamps sold I5,°44 J 6,095 

Other items 2,219 94 



Total $310,906 $265,920 

Sec. 11. Comments 011 the taxation and revenues, expen- 
ditures, and public debts of the United States. 

The general policy of the Federal Government, from 
its organization until the present time, has been to raise 
the most of its revenues from duties on imports. This 
is shown by table II. of the last section. That is the 
easiest mode of collecting revenue, and generally the 
least burdensome to a community ; and especially so 
when a large portion of the tax is imposed upon luxuries ; 
and so far as taxes can be collected from imported articles 
that come in competition with domestic products, the 
imposition of such taxes tends to stimulate and promote 
the industry of a country. 

But when our country is involved in war, or burdened 
with a large public debt, other modes of taxation must 
be resorted to. Direct taxes upon lands and other prop- 
erty were imposed in 1798 to 1800, again in 18 13 and 
1 8 14, and still again in 1862 ; but as that mode of rais- 
ing revenue is almost the only mode which is available 
to the States, counties, and municipalities, towns and 
schools, it becomes very oppressive when the Federal 
Government imposes additional taxes upon the same classes 
of property ; and that mode of Federal taxation may be 
pronounced a failure. Very little was ever realized 
from it. 

The internal revenue system was borrowed from 
England, is new in this country ; but has proved emi- 
nently successful as a system of taxation — as is shown 
in tables III. and IV., in the last section. Perhaps the 
principal mistake was in imposing too heavy a tax on 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 581 

cotton, and on mechanical products and manufactures, 
except a few articles ; and in not taking off the whole tax 
at the close of the war imposed upon those classes of 
products, except tobacco and cigars, distilled and fer- 
mented liquors, illuminating-gas and petroleum, and a 
few other articles of luxury. The excepted articles 
which I have named, and some others, are all either 
superfluities or luxuries, and the proper subjects of taxa- 
tion — I may say of heavy taxation, when necessary, 
in peace as well as in war. The taxes on those articles 
amounted to over 57 millions of dollars in 1866, and to 
over 60 millions in 1867. The taxes on the other 15 
classes of manufactures and products (stated in table 
IV., and numbered from 1 to 21) tend to depress and 
cripple the mechanical and manufacturing industry and 
business of the country, and impoverish the people per- 
haps five times as much as they replenish the treasury. 

The enormous taxes imposed upon the people, and 
particularly those imposed upon the products of mechan- 
ical and manufacturing industry, are greatly depressing 
those great departments of labor, destroying many indus- 
trial establishments, depressing every branch of business 
immediately or remotely connected with them, throwing 
great numbers of persons out of employment, and opera- 
ting very oppressively upon the laboring classes. 

The taxes on sales, gross receipts of certain classes 
of business, licenses, incomes, banks and railroad com- 
panies, legacies and successions, stamps for business 
transactions of importance, on billiard tables, carriages, 
piano-fortes, and other luxuries, are all legitimate in 
peace as well as in war ; and if heavy taxes were im- 
posed on sawed lumber, and on all timber and wood cut 
for market, they would have a salutary effect in checking 
the present rapid and prodigal destruction of the wood 
and timber of our country. 

Rents and profits, incomes from capital business and 
industry, and the consumption and use of luxuries, are 
the most legitimate subjects of taxation. To tax prop- 
erty that produces no income and does not administer 
to luxury, is generally unjust, and often oppressive ; but 
to tax the surplus of income over $600 and the use or 



582 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

rental of a small dwelling-house, is the most equal, just, 
and the least burthensome tax that was ever levied in any 
country. 

The revenues collected during the fiscal year ending 
June 30, 1866, by the Federal Government, exceeded 558 
millions of dollars ; and by the State and county, muni- 
cipal and town governments, and for road and school 
purposes, about 150 millions — making an aggregate of 
more than 700 millions of dollars ; at least 600 millions 
of which were wrung from about 22,000,000 of people ; 
for the Southern people, and their business, are so pros- 
trated, that very little could be collected from them. 
About 640 millions of dollars were wrung from the 
people in taxes, during the fiscal year ending June 30, 
1 867, in a time of profound peace. So large amounts as 
have been collected from the people of the loyal States, 
were never before collected from such a number of inhabi- 
tants on the earth, in any age of the world, or under any 
system of tyranny ever devised. The amount collected 
from the people of the loyal States is nearly twice as 
great, in proportion to the number of inhabitants, as the 
Government of Great Britain and Ireland collects from 
the people of those islands. 

The depressing and paralyzing influence of oppressive 
taxation upon the industry of the country, is shown in 
table IV., in the greatly reduced revenues received from 
almost every branch of industry and business in 1867, 
when compared with the amounts received in 1866. The 
character and crushing severity of our taxation is shown 
in the following extracts from the report of the Revenue 
Commissioners (David A. Wells and others), made to the 
Secretary of the Treasury in January, 1866 : " The 
pressure of local taxation, increased to pay the interests 
on local war expenditures, is probably more severely felt 
than even the burden of national taxation, inasmuch as 
the general government has taken to itself 7iearly every 
source of revenue, except the single one of real estate, which 
had been before burdened with large expenditures for 
schools, roads, and other local matters. . . . Cases 
can be cited, in which taxation upon real estate, even now, 
falls but little short of confiscation ; and in others, where 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 583 

property has been but partially improved, the demands 
for the several classes of taxes absorb nearly the whole 
receipts derived from it. . . . Justice and wise policy, 
therefore, demand, that the national government should 
not now adopt any measures, calculated to maintain or 
increase those burdens." 

The Army and the Navy have both been kept in force, 
approximating to a war footing, for nearly three years 
since the war closed ; which was very unnecessary, and 
has involved an enormous expense. Appropriations were 
never made in any country with less consideration and 
greater prodigality, and expenditures were never made 
with greater profligacy, than they were by our Federal 
Government during the late war ; and the same system 
has been continued since its close. Habits of reckless- 
ness, contracted during the war, seem to have governed 
the executive departments in making estimates as well 
as expenditures, and the legislative departments in voting 
supplies. The profligacy of the expenditures since the 
close of the war may be seen in table II., by comparing 
the expenditures of 1866 and 1867 with those prior to 
the year i860, and particularly with those prior to 1833. 
Reform has become a necessity. 

The necessary expenditures of the Government, inclu- 
ding pensions and interest on the public debt, are so large, 
the industry of the South so deranged and prostrated, 
and the industry of the North and West so depressed 
by excessive taxation and deranged by an inflated cur- 
rency, that this generation should be required to pay 
only the interest of the public debt, and not a dollar of 
the principal, for fifteen or twenty years to come. With- 
out paying any part of the principal, the burthens of the 
interest will grow lighter as the population increases, and 
the industry of the South revives. This generation has 
suffered enousrh to perpetuate the Union. Let those who 
will enjoy the inheritance, pay off the encumbrances 
contracted to protect it. 

Sec. 12. Foreign commerce of the United States and in- 
fliience of the tariff acts. 

I. Statement, in millions of dollars, of the exports of 



584 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

the United States during the under-mentioned fiscal 
years and periods, ending June 30. 

Y ears Domestic Foreign Coin and Total 

products, products, bullion. exports. 

10 years, 1848 to 1 857 1,873 i J 39i 34*- 2,354 

Average annually 187^ 14 34 2351 

5 years, 1857 to I ^ 2 x ,3 88 7H 2 49i ^>7 l 6{ 

Average annually 2 77i I 5f 5° 343 

1 year, 1 86 1 to 1862 182 11 36^ 230 

5 years, 1862 to 1867 ♦2,580 26^ 384 i,99oJ- 

Average annually 316 si 77 398 

1 year, 1866 to 1867 385! 8 61 454! 

II. Statement, in millions of dollars, of the imports of 
the United States during the under-mentioned fiscal 
years and periods, ending June 30. 

Y ear _ Mer- Coin and Total 

chandise. bullion. imports. 

10 years, 1847 to 1857 2 > 2 59| 60 2,319! 

Average annually 226 6 232 

1 year, 1856 to 1857 348I \2\ 3 60 J 

5 years, 1857 to 1862 1,443 J- 9§ 1,544 

Average annually 288f ■ io,f 3081 

1 year, 1 86 1 to 1862 189! l6 f 2 °Si 

5 years, 1862 to 1867 1,623 J 6 5i i,688f 

Average annually 324J 13 337I 

1 year, 1866 to 1867 390 22J 412^ 

III. Statement, in millions of dollars, of the amount 
of coin and bullion exported and imported, and the excess 
of the exports thereof, during the following fiscal years : 
10 years, 1847 to J une 3°> l %$7> exported 341 millions. 

" ' " " " imported 60 

" " " excess of exports . 281 

5 years, 1857 to 1862 exported 249! 

" " " imported 98 

" " " excess of exports.. . 15 if 

5 years, 1862 to 1867 exported 384 

" " " imported. 65^ 

" " " excess of exports.. . 318^- 

20 years, 1847 to ^67 exported 974! 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 585 

20 years, 1847 to 1867, imported $223^- millions. 

" " " excess exported . . . 75 1^ " 

Domestic gold and silver deposited at the 

mints during the 20 years, about 679 millions. 

Worked up into plate, jewelry, watches, etc., 

during the same period, perhaps over. . 100 " 

The imports are always valued in coin ; while the 
exports from 1862 to 1867 were valued in a depreciated 
currency. More than one-third of the value of the domes- 
tic products, or at least 550 millions of dollars, should 
therefore be deducted ; leaving the aggregate exports, 
valued in coin, at not more than $1,440 millions, instead 
of $1,990 millions. 

The foregoing tables show the very large balances of 
trade against the United States during the whole period 
of the last twenty years — necessitating the export of near- 
ly all the products of our rich gold mines to pay such 
balances and the interest on our foreign debt. Perhaps 
our foreign commercial, Federal, State, and corporate 
debts, in 1847, did not exceed $200,000,000; but they 
probably exceed $800,000,000 at this time (January, 
1868), notwithstanding the exports of coin and bullion, 
during the last twenty years, exceeded the imports there- 
of more than $75 1,000,000. The balance of trade against 
the United States was nearly as great previous to the 
war as it was during the war. 

Under the judicious tariff of 1842, imposing specific 
duties upon most articles imported, the balance of trade 
was turned in favor of the United States, and the imports 
of specie considerably exceeded the exports (see vol. i. p. 
259 to 263). But under the low and ill-arranged ad 
valorem tariff of 1846, the coin and bullion exported in 
10 years, from 1847 to 1857, exceeded the amount im- 
ported about $281,000,000 ; and under the still lower and 
worse ad valorem tariff of 1857, the exports of coin and 
bullion exceeded the imports thereof nearly $152,000,000 
in five years (1857 to June 30, 1862). 

An ad valorem tariff opens the way to undervaluations 
and fraudulent invoices, to evade the payment of the full 
amount of duties. No such evasions and frauds can be 
practised under a tariff of specific duties. 

2 5 * 



586 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

The large imports of foreign goods, and very large 
exports of specie, were the principal causes of the panic, 
revulsion, and numerous failures in 1857 ; though a large 
paper currency, expanded credits, extensive speculations 
in stocks, and excessively large expenditures for rail- 
roads, contributed to the result. It seems very certain 
that nothing but the very large production of the gold 
mines of California saved the commercial, banking, and 
business interests of the whole country from being 
wrecked by a revulsion, which would have been more 
severe, perhaps, than the one the nation experienced in 
1837 — which would have carried with it and paralyzed 
the manufacturing and nearly all the industrial interests 
of our country. Notwithstanding the great and false cry 
against the tariff laws, as bounties to manufacturers, 
they have been vastly more necessary to protect the 
commercial, banking, and business interests of the country 
from panics and revulsions, and more important to the 
laboring classes, than they have been to capitalists, who 
invest their property in manufacturing. 

The secession of eleven Southern States deprived the 
nation of the principal articles of export (cotton and 
tobacco) ; and the country must have sunk financially, 
and been crippled in its commerce and industry, and 
in the means of raising revenue, if the tariff laws had 
not been changed, and specie payments suspended. 
Under the tariff of 1862, imposing specific duties on 
imports, and the demands of the war, the mechanical 
and manufacturing industry of the loyal States was 
powerfully stimulated, and wonderfully expanded ; which 
enabled the people to pay the most enormous taxes ever 
imposed upon any people, and to loan to the Federal and 
State Governments at least $2,000,000,000, to aid in 
carrying on the war. By such means, the country was 
carried successfully through the most gigantic civil war 
ever known in the history of the world. 



Sec. 13. Banks and Bank notes, and Treasury notes. 

Statement of the number of banks and branches in 
the United States, the amount of capital paid in, and the 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 587 

amount of notes in circulation at the time of making their 
reports, generally in November or December of the 
under-mentioned years : — I. 

n „„ om , , Number of ' Capital paid Circulation. 

ijecemoer. Banks. in Millions. Millions. 



I829 $145 

I836 758 290 149 

1839 9°'7 363 107 

1842 691 228 58 

1846 715 203 105 

1850 879 227 155 

1856 1416 370 2I4f 

1859 1562 421 207 

1861 1492 418 184 

1862 1*466 405 238! 

1862 Specie in banks. ioij 

" Gold and silver in U. S. depositories 5 

" Specie in banks and U. S. " 106 \ 

In addition to the capital of incorporated banks, the 
Secretary of the Treasury, in his financial report of 
December, 1856, gives a statement of the amount of 
capital employed by bankers, banking without charters, 
and by money and exchange brokers, in the different 
States — amounting to over 118 million dollars. 

The first issue of non-interest-bearing United States 
notes, intended to circulate as a substitute for money, 
was under an act of Congress of July 17, 1861, which 
authorized the issue of 50 millions of dollars. By act of 
February 12, 1862, the amount was increased to 60 mil- 
lions, which was promptly issued. By act of February 
25, 1862, Congress authorized the issue of 150 millions 
of dollars in legal tender United States notes, $50,000,000 
of which was to be in lieu of and to take up that amount 
of notes issued under the act of July 17, 1862. Other 
acts, authorizing further issues of notes and fractional 
and postal currency, were passed July 11 and 17, 1862 ; 
January 17, 1863 ; and March 3, 1863. The necessities 
of the Government were great, and the issue of paper 
money, or treasury notes, bearing no interest, was an 
easy and delusive mode of supplying its waitts, and pay- 
ing its debts. 



588 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

II. Non-interest-bearing United States notes and cur- 
rency, issued under those acts, were outstanding at 
different periods, as follows ; stated in millions of 
dollars : 

Treasury Postal and frac- r~ ■, 

notes. tional notes. 

1862, January I $50 .. $50 

1862, July 1 149I .. 149I 

1863, January 1 238 $6J- 244J 

1863, July 1 391 20 411 

1864, July 1 432 22^ 454! 

1865, July 31 433I- 25f 458! 

1865, Oct. 31 428 26 454 

1866, June 30 4001 27 427! 

1867, June 30 372 28£ 400J 

III. Statement of the number of National Banks or- 
ganized, the amount of capital paid in, and the amount 
of circulating notes issued at the following periods : 

Banks. Capital. Circulation. 

1863, Oct. 14 105 $ 1 2} millions. Very small. 

1864, June 30 7 Si " 

" Aug. 31 81J " 

" Nov 584 109 " $6si millions. 

1865, Oct. 1 1601 .. 190 " 

1866, Nov! 1663 417 " 292! " 

1867, Oct 1673 424 " 304 " 

The national banks and their notes took the places, 
and more than filled the places, of the State banks. Up 
to October 1, 1865, there had been 731 State banks con- 
verted into national banks ; the remaining State banks 
had a circulation of about 59 million dollars, and the 
national banks about 190 million dollars — making a bank 
circulation of 249 million dollars ; which was much greater 
than the circulation of the State banks ever was. In 
addition to that, the non-interest-bearing paper money 
issued by the Government amounted in 1865 to 454 mil- 
lions of dollars — thus swelling the volume of paper 
money to 703 millions of dollars. 

The specie held by the banks from 1830 to 1840 was 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 589 

between 30 and 40 millions of dollars, never exceeding 
the latter sum ; from 1840 to 1850 it was between 40 and 
48 millions ; from 1850 to December, 1857, it was from 
less than 50, to nearly 75 millions at the latter date ; 
and in 1858 it rose to over 104!- million dollars, which is 
the largest sum ever held by the banks of the United 
States. Small amounts were in the United States treas- 
ury depositories, and from 1858 to May, 1 861, perhaps 
50 millions of dollars were generally in the hands of the 
people, and used for change in small transactions. 

The circulation of the banks was gradually expanded 
from about 155 millions in December, 1850, to nearly 
215 millions in the fall of 1856; which contributed 
largely to invite excessively large imports, to expand 
enormously the credit system, to aid and stimulate exten- 
sive speculations in stocks, products, and real estate, and 
to cause the crisis, panic, and revulsion of 1857. The 
pernicious influences of a redundant and inflated paper 
currency have been heretofore stated and discussed (ante, 
p. 115 to 117). 

The Crisis of 1857 gave the banking system and the 
commercial world a terrible shock, caused numerous fail- 
ures, and necessitated a reductioii of the amount of paper 
moiiey ; and it went down nearly 60 millions within a 
few months, to the amount in circulation in 1850. From 
November, 1857, to October, 1861, it fluctuated from 155 
to 207 millions — averaging about 190 millions ; and with 
about 50 millions of coin, the total average circulation 
was about 240 millions, during that period. In October, 
1 86 1 (specie payments having been suspended), the issue 
of treasury notes and an expansion of the volume of 
paper money again commenced. On the 30th of June, 
1863, the currency had swollen to over 600 millions — 
consisting of over 411 millions treasury notes, postal 
and fractional currency, and over 200 millions bank notes. 
On the 30th of June, 1864, the Government currency 
issued and outstanding amounted to nearly 45 5 millions, 
and the bank paper must have been over 200 millions — 
making a total circulation of about 660 millions. Octo- 
ber 1, 1865, it amounted to about 703 millions, as here- 
tofore stated. In November, 1866, the paper money had 



590 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

increased to about 720 millions (as shown by tables II. and 
III.) ; in June, 1867, it was still over 700 millions, and 
must be nearly as much at this time (February, 1868). 

By examining the tables, and making a reasonable 
estimate of the amount of coin in circulation among the 
people prior to the war, the reader will see that the cir- 
culating medium, called money, has been nearly three 
times as large from the year 1864 to the present time, 
and more than twice as large in 1863 as it was from 
1858 to 1 86 1. The inflation of prices followed the infla- 
tion of the currency, as a necessary conseqtience, as hereto- 
fore explained (ante, 115 to 117); and the notes of the 
United States lost at one time more than half of their 
commercial value, or value for the purchase of mer- 
chandise or commodities of any kind. Their commercial 
value can be measured and ascertained only by the rela- 
tive value of gold and silver coin, which the commercial 
world recognize as the only standards of value ; and 
whenever gold is purchased and paid in United States 
notes at a price above par, it is because the paper money 
is depreciated below par. 

There are two causes for the depreciation of paper 
money. One is the low credit and want of confidence 
in the government or bank which issues it ; and the 
other the excessive amount put into circulation, and its 
redundancy. The war in which the Federal Government 
was involved, and its protraction, the frequent reverses 
of our arms, the critical state of the country much of 
the time, the necessity of raising enormous sums to 
prosecute the war, the rapidly increasing public debt, 
and the uncertainty of final success, all contributed to 
impair the credit of the United States, and to depreciate 
their notes and securities. So also the excessively large 
issues of treasury and bank notes, to supply the press- 
ing wants of the Government, by increasing the cur- 
rency to about three times its former volume, greatly 
depreciated its commercial value. Even coin loses a 
portion of its commercial value, when the volume of it 
becomes unusually large, and is increasing. 

United States notes sank gradually in value, from 
month to month, as the volume of it was increased, and 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 59I 

it became more and more redundant ; and it often fluc- 
tuated in value, and went up or down rapidly, according 
to the success or reverses of our arms ; its rise or fall 
being indicated by the market price of gold. 

The volume of paper money continued to increase 
from the fall of 1861 until November, 1866; but not 
very much after July, 1864 (as is shown in tables II. 
and III.). The fluctuations between the highest and lowest 
prices in a month or year were mostly due to depreciated 
credit ; but the regular and permanent depreciation of 
United States notes, which continued after the war 
closed, was caused by the inflation and redundancy of the 
currency. 

IV. Statement of the highest and lowest prices of 
$1.00 in gold coin, payable in United States notes, during 
the under-mentioned months and periods : 

January. April. July. October. 

1862 highest. . .$105 $102^ $120 $137 
" lowest 100 101J 109 122 

1863 highest 160 159 145 156 

" lowest 134 146 123 140 

1864 highest .... 160 187 285 229 
" lowest 151 166 222 189 

1865 highest 234 160 146 149 

" lowest 197 144 138 144 

1866 highest 144 129 155 149 

" lowest 136 125 147 145 

1867 highest 137 141 140 145 

" lowest 132 132 138 140 

On the 1st of July, 1862, the Government had paper 
money, bearing no interest, outstanding to the amount 
of about 150 millions of dollars ; and it had depreciated 
very little, gold being only 109 ; but the reverses of 
July carried gold up to 120. Richmond and Petersburg 
were evacuated, and General Lee surrendered in April, 
1865 ; and the war then substantially closed. The large 
receipts of the Government from duties on imports and 
internal revenue, for the fiscal years ending June 30, 
1865, 1866, and 1867, established, beyond all doubt, the 
ability of the Federal Government to maintain the 



5Q2 'THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

supremacy of the Constitution and laws throughout the 
Union, and to meet all its engagements ; and therefore, 
since April, 1865, the redundancy and inflation of the cur- 
rency is the only cause (except the occasional alarms ex- 
cited by the action of Congress) of the depreciation of 
United States notes. During that period, of nearly three 
years, the average price of one dollar in gold has been 
140 cents or more in paper — showing that the paper 
currency is worth only about 71 cents on the dollar, by 
reason of its redundancy. It commenced depreciating 
a very little in January, 1862, and declined more and 
more with the inflation of the currency, until it reached 
its maximum in July, 1863. 



Sec. 14. Influence of an inflated currency upon prices y 
upon commerce and industry, and upon the accumula- 
tion of the national debt. 

For the first 100 millions of paper money it issued, the 
Government got its full value ; for the next 50 millions, 
it lost very little ; but for the last 300 millions issued, it 
lost, by reason of the enhancement of prices by the infla- 
tion of the currency, about 25 per cent, on an average, 
or about 7$ millions of dollars. And in addition to that, 
the government lost from the same cause about 25 per 
cent, on more than two thousand millions of dollars 
derived from other sources, and expended during the war 
— making an aggregate loss, and an increase of the public 
debt, to the amount of at least 600 millions of dollars, 
by reason of its action in inflating the currency. To 
compensate in part for that loss, the Government saved, 
in the course of a series of years, a little over 100 mil- 
lions of dollars in interest. 

The Secretary of the Treasury and his friends were 
enchanted with the facility of paying debts with treas- 
ury notes. They were deluded with the idea that the 
Government was saving nearly 30 millions of dollars an- 
nually by such a policy, that it was clear gain, and that, 
by diluting the currency and making money plenty, the 
facilities were increased for borrowing large sums at 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 593 

lower rates of interest. They reasoned in some respects 
correctly ; but were blind to other tendencies of their meas- 
ures. The Government did save some interest, but, on the 
other hand, it lost five times as -much by tlie inflation of 
prices, caused by their delusive system. If only one 
hundred millions of treasury notes, and fifty millions in 
fractional currency, had been issued, the measure would 
have been a wise one ; the fractional currency was a 
necessity; but the mischievous policy of issuing nearly 
500 millions, can be properly characterized only as finan- 
cial quackery. 

An inflated currency, by raising prices to an unreason- 
able degree, and above the general level of the markets 
of the world, deranges the industrial operations, a7id all 
the business relations and transactions of a country, and 
produces evils of great magnitude. By raising the prices 
of products and increasing the expenses of living, it 
operates very severely upon the poor, and upon persons 
having large families ; and though it tends to raise the 
price of labor to a corresponding degree, that rise does 
not aid those that cannot labor, and does not benefit 
parents that have children too young or too feeble to 
support themselves by industry. It operates also, in the 
end, to depress industry, by raising the cost of produc- 
tion to a level above the markets of specie-paying 
countries ; whereby it contributes to lessen exports, to 
discourage production, to invite large imports, and to 
turn the balance of trade against a country. High prices 
offer inducements to foreign manufacturers and producers 
to supply our markets. By lessening mechanical and 
manufacturing industry, an inflated currency eventually 
throws many laborers out of employment, and injures 
the laboring classes in many ways. An inflated currency 
and high taxation concur i7i depressing industry, and often 
operate very oppressively iipon the laboring classes. 

Such are the pernicious tendencies of the excessive 
issue of treasury notes and paper money ; and yet we 
have ambitious aspirants, in both of the great political 
parties of the day, concocting schemes to pay off the 
national debt in a few years, mostly by the issue of non- 
interest-bearing treasury notes. 



594 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

The Comptroller of the Currency, in his annual report 
of November 4, 1867, states the outlines of the schemes 
as follows : " This subject is before the public upon two 
propositions : 

"First, To deprive the national banks of the right to 
issue notes for circulation, in order that the government 
may issue its own notes in their place. 

" Second, To issue United States notes in payment of 
compound interest notes, seven-thirty notes, and five-twenty 
bonds, as they mature and become payable? 

" The advocates of the last mentioned scheme regard 
the first proposition as the preliminary step to the ac- 
complishment of their own purposes ; and therefore unite 
in its support." 

The Comptroller proceeds, and exposes some of the 
sophistries upon which such schemes are based, and by 
which they are supported. The necessary consequence 
of carrying such schemes into effect, to enable the Federal 
Treasury to supply all the circulating medium of the 
United States, would be, to drive the national and State 
banks out of existence, and to confer upon the national 
government a dangerous power. Such visionary projects 
could not be carried into full effect without the issue, 
within a few years, of from 1,500 to 1,800 millions of 
dollars more United States notes ; and before half the 
debt could be paid in that fraudulent mode, Treasury 
notes would scarcely be worth 25 cents on the dollar, 
and our banking, industrial, and business interests would 
be utterly wrecked. Independent of the violation of the 
national faith involved in such schemes, they smack strong- 
ly of political demagogism, and financial quackery. 

To pay off the principal part of the national debt in 
non-interest bearing Treasury notes, intended to circulate 
as money, would be nearly as bad, and in some respects 
worse, than direct repudiation ; for it would not only 
violate the national faith and the rights of the public 
creditors, and destroy the public credit ; but it would 
add hypocrisy to fraud, and derange and cripple the busi- 
ness and industry of the country, without effecting the 
object,-^/i?r it would leave the debt in another form, still 
unpaid. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 595 

Sec. 15. The cause of Temperance. 

The principle of temperance has been carried to such 
extremes that it has become a delusion ; and the ambi- 
tion of its advocates to force the practice of total absti- 
nence upon the people by law, has injuriously affected the 
legislation and policy of the country. State prohibitory- 
laws, and excessively high taxes imposed by Congress 
upon distilled liquors, have not answered the expectations 
of the friends of such measures ; laws have been enacted 
so obnoxious to the opinions and tastes of a large portion 
of almost every community, that it has been found im- 
possible to execute them in cities and large villages. 
Great numbers of good citizens are theoretically in favor 
of rigid laws for others to execute, which they have 
not the disposition nor courage themselves to aid in ex- 
ecuting. 

The most stringent laws have been very generally 
evaded ; and not only public officers, but temperance men 
also, have ivinked at the evasion, until the sale of liquors 
contrary to law has become as great, and much greater 
to young men, than it was forty years ago, under the 
license system, and the old English qui-tam action to 
recover penalties. The traffic has taken a new and more 
attractive form. It is now mostly at saloons, in connection 
with billiard tables and other amusements, and at oyster 
houses and restaurants. The sale and places of sale 
being untaxed and unregulated by law, the places of sale 
are four times as numerous in cities, and have become 
more general haunts of young men, and more disorderly 
than they formerly were ; the traffic is more injurious to 
the public morals ; and the public derives no compensa- 
ting advantages in the form of taxes paid for licenses to 
sell. And yet the advocates for total abstinence, blind 
to the tendencies of their measures and policy, cling to 
their ineffective prohibitory laws as a matter of conscience, 
and declare they cannot give their support to laws to 
regulate the sale of liquors, because they say such laws 
authorize an immoral traffic. Conscience is sometimes a 
blind guide. 

The same spirit has injuriously affected the legislation 



596 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

of Congress, and induced the imposition of a tax on the 
distillation of whiskey so high, that the tax on more 
than three-fourths of the quantity distilled is evaded. The 
government would collect more revenue from a tax of 
fifty or seventy-five cents per gallon, than it does now 
from a tax of $2. Fanaticism, like selfishness, by too 
much rigidity and determination to domineer, often defeats 
its own ends and purposes. 

Furthermore, the dietetic and medicinal qualities of 
alcoholic and other stimulants, are better understood 
now than they were twenty years ago ; and they are now 
more used in compounds, in bitters, and with food and 
drink in various ways, for medicinal purposes, by the 
advice of physicians. They are frequently given now 
with very beneficial effect, in milk-punch, egg-nog, slings, 
and bitters, in consumptive, dyspeptic, and other debilita- 
ting complaints. Distilled spirits should by no means be 
regarded as an unmixed evil. They have their uses as 
well as their evils ; and hence they should be tolerated ; 
their sale should be regulated by law, and the sale there- 
of to minors, on the Sabbath, after ten o'clock at night, 
(except in cases of sickness), or in the same building 
with billiard tables or any other amusement, might be 
advantageously and properly prohibited. 

More observation and reflection, since the publication 
of the first volume of this work, and the failure of the 
prohibitory liquor laws to produce the good effects antici- 
pated, have wrought a change in my views upon this 
important subject. 

Sec. 16. Wood and timber, and the means of preserving 
and cultivating them. 

The greatest of all questions which will be presented 
to the next generation of the American people, will be, 
how to supply themselves with fuel and timber ; and 
how to preserve and cultivate wood and timber for the 
use of future generations. The prodigality and reckless- 
ness with which wood and timber have been cut off and 
destroyed in this country, during the last thirty years, 
perhaps never was exceeded, even in Mahometan coun- 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 597 

tries, where the dearth of such articles is the greatest 
economical evil which the people have labored under for 
more than a thousand years past. It is impossible for 
the people of those countries to avail themselves of the 
use of steam power and steam navigation, to much extent, 
for want of fuel. 

We shall soon have 50,000 miles of railway in opera- 
tion in the United States, without sufficient fuel to keep 
in permanent operation (after the expiration of twenty 
years) more than 20,000 miles ; and the result must be, 
eventually, that the most of the roads must return to 
horse power. The extent of mineral coal is uncertain. 
A national debt is the great, a7id almost the only future 
evil which this intelligent and fast, but in some respects 
fanatical and blind, generation seems to realize and fear. 
But even a great national debt, burthensome as it is, is a 
trifling evil, when compared with such a destitution of 
wood and timber, as the people of nearly every Mahom- 
etan country suffer from. 

England and France, Russia and some other countries 
of Europe, have long made it a business to plant and 
cultivate wood and timber, and to legislate for the protec- 
tion thereof ; and twenty years hence, England will be 
better supplied with such articles than the most of the 
States of this Union will be, unless the public policy in 
that regard be immediately changed. It is now more 
difficult to supply the people with fuel than with food in 
many countries of the Old World ; and hence the impor- 
tance of more providence in that regard, for the future, 
in the United States as well as in other countries. 

Nearly all the pine fit for sawing, upon the head waters 
of the Hudson and Delaware, Susquehanna and Che- 
mung, Allegany and Genesee rivers, in the State of New 
York, has been cut ; and they have got down to the 
hemlock and spruce, basswood and white-ash, chestnut 
and butternut, oak and other hard woods ; the pine upon 
the upper waters of the rivers of Maine is rapidly disap- 
pearing, and very little will be left ten years hence ; and 
nearly all the sawing timber in the other New England 
States, and also in New Jersey, has been cut and used up. 

Carefully prepared statistics of the quantities of lum- 



598 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

ber sawed at each mill in the valley of the Saginaw river 
and its tributaries, during several years past, show the 
following aggregates : 



In 1863 133J million feet 

" 1864 215 

" 1 865 over 250 

" 1 S66 over 340 

and in 1867, by 82 mills, over 422 J 



In addition to the above, the mills on the shore of 
Saginaw Bay (about 20 in number) cut, in 1867, nearly 
85 million feet of lumber ; and about 50 million feet was 
sawed at Flint and the vicinity, on the Flint river, which 
did not go into the valley of the Saginaw — making an 
aggregate of over 557 million feet of lumber sawed, in 
1867, in that part of the State of Michigan. 

Besides large quantities of lath made, 33 shingle mills 
in the Saginaw valley employed about 420 men, and 
manufactured, in 1867, over 90 million shingles. The 
stave business was also large ; and over 9 millions of 
staves were made during the year, and over 8 millions 
shipped. 

About 40 saw mills were in operation in the valleys 
of the Muskegon and White rivers, during the years 
1866 and 1867, which cut nearly 200 million feet of 
lumber in 1866, and over 200 million feet in 1867. 

The quantities sawed upon the Detroit and St. Clair, 
Kalamazoo and Grand, Manistee and other rivers, and 
upon the shores and bays of Lakes Michigan and Huron, 
probably exceeded 250 million feet — making an aggre- 
gate of more than 1,000 million feet of pine lumber 
sawed in Michigan during the year 1867. The exhaus- 
tion of the timber is so rapid and great annually, that 
the most of the mills upon the Detroit and St. Clair 
rivers must stop within five years ; those upon the Sag- 
inaw river and its tributaries, and many other rivers, 
must generally stop within fifteen years ; and those upon 
the Muskegon and White, Manistee and other rivers, 
as well as those upon the bays and shores of the lakes, 
within 20 years. The probability is, that within the 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 599 

latter period, there will be very little pine timber in the 
State fit for sawing, upon either navigable or floatable 
waters. The little remaining will be so far in the interior 
as not to be immediately available. 

The Bangor Whig gave estimates of the amount of 
lumber obtained in 1866, in the great lumber districts of 
Maine, upon seven of its principal rivers, and made the 
amount 575 million feet ; and estimated the whole 
quantity obtained in the State, at 600 million feet. 

The lumber business has become very active, and is 
rapidly expanding in the States of Wisconsin and Min- 
nesota, and upon many of the western tributaries of the 
Mississippi river ; and the indications now are, that 
within 20 years, the most of the valuable sawing timber, 
hard wood as well as pine, east of the Rocky Mountains, 
will be used up ; and it requires from 100 to 200 years 
to grow such timber. 

The wood of our country is in the process of being 
used up for fuel, for railroads, family and other uses, in 
about the same rapid manner ; and the question will 
soon be forced upon the American people, is there any 
remedy for such national improvidence and prodigality ? 

Remedies stiggested. 

There may be several partial remedies, which, by co- 
operating, may produce great results : 

1st. Proper individual efforts to preserve forests, wood 
and timber, for future use. 

2d. Individual efforts to plant and cultivate wood and 
timber, as it is done in England, France, Russia, and 
many other countries. 

3d. States and the Federal Government may set aside 
lands for forests, and enact laws to protect them. 

4th. Our method of taxing wild lands should be aban- 
doned, and a new system adopted ; so arranged as to en- 
courage individuals to preserve forests, wood and timber, 
for the use of future generations. 

The present system of taxing wild lands the same per 
cent, upon their valuation as productive property is taxed, 
is unjust and impolitic. Instead of encouraging the 



600 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

preservation of forests and timber, it encourages and 
often necessitates their destruction, — in order to raise a 
revenue from the land to pay the tax. Wild lands are 
taxed so severely that the owners can seldom afford to 
hold them as forests, for the benefit of the coming genera- 
tion. England, more wisely, imposes taxes on the rental, 
income, or value of the use of property ; and levies no 
taxes on property which yields no income. 

Men that preserve or cultivate forests for the use of a 
future generation, derive no personal benefit from lands 
and property appropriated to such uses. They are public 
benefactors ; and it is unjust, as well as ungenerous, to 
impose taxes upon the subject and means of their benefac- 
tion. 

The proper system is, to impose no taxes on forests, 
or lands upon which the proprietor is cultivating timber ; 
but, in lieu thereof, to impose a heavy tax on sawed 
lumber, hewn and other timber, cord wood and fuel, cut 
for use. If taxes were levied in that method, sufficient 
to produce as much revenue as the present taxes upon 
wild lands, they would be paid by the consumers of the 
lumber, timber and fuel, and would be much less burthen- 
some, as well as more just and politic, than the present 
taxes upon such property. 

The history of the world and the experiments of 
modern times establish the fact, that trees and fruits, 
grains and grasses, plants and vegetables, of all kinds, 
can be, and have been, improved by cultivation, and can 
be grown successfully in soils and climates which do not 
produce them, and never have produced them spontaneous- 
ly. Indian corn and potatoes, sugar cane and tobacco, 
and several species of grasses and grapes now grown in 
this country, originated in America. Almost every thing 
else which we cultivate or raise, except forest trees, were 
introduced from the Old World. Wheat and rye, oats 
and barley, buckwheat and rice, pease and beans, cotton 
and flax, apples and pears, peaches and cherries, melons 
and tomatoes, turnips and many other vegetables, and 
all our domestic animals, originated on the eastern con- 
tinent, were transplanted from there to America, and 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 601 

have been raised as successfully here as in the Old 
World. 

Such facts leave no reason to doubt that, with proper 
legislation and proper care and attention, trees of various 
kinds may be planted and cultivated successfully, in 
many situations, upon the vast prairies and plains of 
our Western States and Territories, as has been done 
upon the arid plains of Russia ; and that such cultivation 
would tend to increase the moisture and productiveness 
of the country. But it can never be done without the 
aid of legislation. 

Sec. 17. Deterioration of the org attic laws of the States. 

During the 18th and every previous century, in every 
country of the civilized world, men of age and experience, 
property and acquirements, were regarded as having 
political rights superior to those of men who had no 
such qualifications ; and heads of families were generally 
recognized as the units of political society ; but all such 
conservative principles have been gradually discarded in 
America, during the present century, as aristocratic, and 
anti-republican. 

The men from 21 to 35 years of age are more numer- 
ous than all the older classes, and the most of that class 
(as a general rule) must necessarily have but little ex- 
perience, and do not regard experience as of much impor- 
tance. Young America has united with inexperienced 
older men, whom they have made leaders in some in- 
stances, seized the reins of government, and wielded the 
most of the political power of this country, for more 
than twenty years past. The effect has been, that power 
has been very frequently, and I may say very generally, 
exercised by men of but little experience, and the changes 
of officers, and particularly of members of Congress, 
have been so frequent, and all are so kept in leading 
strings by partisan organizations and party creeds, that 
the natural talents of men for statesmanship are not 
fully developed. Our system of party politics and Young 
America domination, produces cunning politicians, and but 
very few statesmen. Men Who have much independence 

26 



602 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

of thought, and opinions of their own, are generally set 
aside as unavailable, and must give place to supple and 
bargaining politicians. 

The most pernicious of the political doctrines of the 
day, which has been growing in force for more than half 
a century^ and is now culminating in several States in 
negro equality, is the dogma of the natural political 
equality of all men — without any regard to intellect or 
acquirements, age or experience, whether they are heads 
of families and householders or single men, and whether 
they have taxable property, or no property. The formula 
now proclaimed is, universal manhood suffrage for all 
elective officers — for all men, without regard to race or 
color, acquirements or property, tax-paying or family 
relations. The millennium of entire political equality, 
which has long been in operation in Mexico and other 
Spanish-American republics, is about to be ushered into 
the United States, with complete negro supremacy in some 
six or eight States, and the balance of federal power vested 
(if possible) in the negro race. 

These changes have been going on gradually in public 
opinion, accompanied by a deterioration of the organic 
laws of the States ; of which the following changes have 
been the most pernicious in their influence : 

I st. The abrogation of the property and tax-paying 
qualifications, required by the first constitutions of all 
the original thirteen States (except New Hampshire), 
for voters for State Senators ; and the adoption of the 
principle of universal manhood suffrage, in nearly all the 
States, for electors of both houses of the Legislature, and 
all elective offices. 

2d. The adoption of the system of electing judges and 
all judicial officers, by the people. 

3d. The adoption of the system of electing State officers 
by the people. 

4th. The adoption of the system of electing clerks of 
courts, county treasurers, and prosecuting attorneys, and 
many other officers, by the people. 

These methods of election are contrary to the systems 
adopted by the first State constitutions, and were little 
known until towards the middle of the 19th century. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 603 

The first constitutions of New York and North Carolina 
required a property qualification for electors of Senators, 
but none for electors of members of the lower house of 
the Legislature. Such a distinction seems highly proper 
and necessary — to make the Senate a more experienced and 
more conservative body of men, representing more fully the 
property and business interests of the people ; — while 
under a system of universal manhood suffrage, classes 
having no taxable property (or very little, if any) have the 
control of the election of members of the lower house, 
members of Congress, and other officers. 

Where universal suffrage prevails in electing members 
of the lower house, such a distinction in the qualification 
of senatorial electors seems necessary, to secure proper 
deliberation in legislation, and to prevent measures from 
being hurried through both houses, under the influence 
of partisan passion and interest, or popular excitement. 
When both houses are elected by the same electors, at the 
same time, and a majority of them by the same political 
party, they will represent and reflect the same interests, 
passions, and prejudices, and no other ; and there will be 
no difference in the age, experience, and qualifications 
of the members of the two houses. A Senate so elected, 
mostly by one political party, is not a conservative body, 
as it should be. It reflects the views and opinions of 
the best informed and most experienced men of the State 
as little, and the popular and partisan passions and im- 
pulses of the day as strongly, as the lower house does. 
In this particular, the organization of the Federal Govern- 
ment is vastly more conservative than that of any of the 
States at the present day. There is not much use of 
a Senate, if both houses are to be elected for short 
periods, by the same body of electors. 

As to the election of judges, State officers, clerks, and 
some county officers, by the people, it is impossible to 
secure impartial judges and the best officers, and to 
promote the public welfare the most effectually, by such 
a system. By nominating judges by partisan conventions, 
through the management of politicians, and electing them 
by the people, you render them too dependent upon active 
politicians to admit of their being impartial. All the 



604 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

changes in our government have not been in the direction 
of enlightened progress ; and how much deterioration 
our system of government will bear, remains to be 
proven by experience. 

Negro suffrage in the Southern States would be a much 
less dangerous experiment, if, so far as it may apply to 
persons having no taxable property, it could be confined 
to the election of the lower house of their legislatures ; 
and members of Congress, senators, governors, and local 
administrative officers, were elected by freeholders, or 
persons having $200 or more taxable property ; and 
judges and State officers were not elected by the people. 

Sec. 1 8. Intense and violent party spirit, and its evils. 

Party spirit in our country has become so intense, that 
it has degenerated into a system of management for the 
organization of the people into clubs, societies, and fac- 
tions, to enable them to hold meetings and conventions, 
to excite popular prejudices against political opponents, 
and to make creeds and platforms to gain confidence and 
get votes. Partisan platforms are often mere gull-traps, 
in which they proclaim, in specious general terms, prin- 
ciples and measures supposed to be popular, and keep their 
most ultra views and purposes in the background — not 
daring to avow them, until they get the power to carry 
them into effect. 

A violent partisan spirit begets a system of manage- 
ment and cunning, which has long pervaded both the 
Executive and Legislative departments of the Govern- 
ment ; and in some instances it has tainted the Judiciary. 
It has, to an alarming extent, pervaded the legislation of 
the national as well as the State Governments. In legis- 
lation it begets a system of tactics which tends to the 
adoption of extreme measures, and aids in defeating 
amendments offered by conservative men. Extreme 
opponents often combine to defeat such amendments. 
Instead of aiding the rational friends of new measures 
to remove their most objectionable and extreme features, 
they oppose conservative and healthy amendments, and 
aid in engrafting upon bills the most extreme provisions, 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 6c»5 

for the purpose of making them odious, and bringing the 
friends of the measure into disrepute with the people. 

To attain partisan ends, in legislation, a system of 
party tactics and cunning management is often resorted to 
which, in business transactions, would be denounced as 
knavery. The appointing power is also too much 
governed by partisan considerations, in selecting officers 
and making appointments. Party spirit begets unworthy 
motives, and induces corrupt action. 

Patriotism and regard for the welfare of the whole 
country, have become obsolete terms among partisan 
politicians, and are rarely thought of by them. The first 
question with them is, how a measure will affect the 
success of their party — not, what will be its influence 
upon the prosperity of the country, and the general wel- 
fare of the people. Partisan domination, and the gratifica- 
tion of personal ambition through partisan organization 
and the success of their party, seem to be the principal 
ends and aims of politicians. 

Party spirit has become so violent as to allow no 
toleration of differences of opinion. A man must belong 
to a political party, or both parties are inclined to treat 
him as an opponent. He must not only belong to a party, 
and profess its creed, as the only true rule of political 
faith, but he must constantly preach its doctrines, ap- 
prove its nominations, and support all its nominees for 
office ; or he will soon be ostracised. He must also 
keep up with the most advanced creed of the conven- 
tions and leaders of the party ; for if he express any 
doubts upon any point, or hesitate in the least, he will 
soon be denounced as unworthy of confidence. 

Parties are inseparable from free Government ; but 
party action should be limited to a sphere as narrow 
as possible ; and public officers should be governed by 
law and regard for the public good, and not by party 
spirit. Party machinery, and such an intense party spirit 
as has long existed in our country, aid in destroying 
freedom of opinion, freedom of speech, and freedom of 
action ; in fostering selfishness and prejudice ; in 
demoralizing the people, and generating a despicable 
scramble for office ; in ostracising many of the best men, 



606 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

and elevating to office active partisans, without regard 
to qualifications or character, experience or fitness. 
Such a system tends to the adoption of measures and 
policies to promote party success, without regard to the 
best interests of the country. See vol. i. pages 1 12 and 
113. 

Sec. 19. Remedies suggested. 

There are many evils, incident to all systems of 
government, which cannot be avoided ; but they are 
increased in magnitude in our country, by party spirit, 
the caucus and convention methods of nominating can- 
didates for office, and our system of elections — by which 
minorities are practically deprived of any representation, 
or participation in the Government. As remedies for 
these evils, and other evils arising from the violence of 
party spirit, I would suggest the following : 

1st. Give to minorities as well as to majorities, a 
representation in legislative and administrative bodies 
and councils. 

2d. Hold double elections. 

3d. Prohibit caucuses and conventions for the nomina- 
tion of candidates for office ; and 

4th. Lessen the number of officers to be elected by 
the people, and the frequency of election to many 
offices. 

To give minorities a representation, arrange districts 
for the election of members of Congress and each house 
of the Legislature, so as to give each district three 
members, to allow each voter to cast a vote for each 
of two persons, or two votes for one person. The first 
election should be held three or four weeks, or more, 
before the second, as a method of nominating candidates 
to be supported at the second election ; when the votes 
should be confined to a certain number of persons hav- 
ing the largest number of votes at the first. The first 
election would be a substitute for the present system 
of nominating conventions ; and the whole people would 
participate in it, instead of a few partisan politicians and 
political aspirants. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 607 

By such a system, all the electors would participate 
in nominating candidates for office, without the inter- 
vention of party machinery ; and the majority party would 
elect two, and the minority party one member, in each 
district. (See vol. I., pages 113 to 116.) 

Judicial officers may better be nominated by the 
Governor of the State, and appointed by and with the 
advice and consent of the Senate, or of the Senate and 
lower house, or elected by both houses of the Legislature 
— than to be nominated by party conventions, and elected 
by the people. 

Under the present system of electing State officers 
by the people, there is no unity of opinion or action 
between them and the Governor, who is vested with no 
power over them. The Governor has, in fact, no cabinet 
or confidential advisers ; and there is no unity of policy in 
the executive department of the State governments. To 
secure unity of policy and concert of action, it is neces- 
sary that the State officers should be appointed upon the 
nomination of the Governor. 

The only method effectual to prevent fraudulent voting 
and fraudulent election returns, is to have both political 
parties represented upon every election board, and upon 
every board for the registration of voters. 

Political conventions are generally managed and con- 
trolled by the following classes of men : 

1st. Office-holders, who wish to promote the interests 
and perpetuate the ascendency of their party — that they 
may retain their offices or get others. 

2d. Office-seekers, who are hungering and thirsting 
after the honors and emoluments of office. 

3d. Government contractors or persons looking after 
Government contracts. 

4th. Persons seeking grants or appropriations from 
the Government, or legislation that will promote their 
own private interests. 

Many persons of these classes make politics a trade, 
by which they sometimes enrich themselves ; and nearly 
all of them are seeking to do so. Should the destinies 
of a great country be controlled by these classes of men, 
who are seeking too exclusively their own personal ends 



608 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

and interests ? Is it not time for the people to cut loose 
from such machinery and such influences, and to adopt 
a system in which all the voters would participate in 
nominating candidates for office ? The system suggested 
of double elections, the prohibition of nominating conven- 
tions, and the representation of minorities, would prob- 
ably effect that great desideratum. 

Sec. 20. Reconstruction measures and policies. 

The seceding States held conventions ; renounced all 
allegiance to the Constitution and Government of the 
United States ; formally withdrew from the Union, and 
withdrew their senators and representatives from Con- 
gress ; formed a national Constitution, and organized a 
Confederate Government for themselves, in February, 
1 86 1 ; elected and sent senators and representatives to 
a Confederate Congress, and practically went out of the 
Union — though in the eye of the law, they remained 
subject to the Constitution, laws, and Government of the 
United States. They claimed to be and to constitute 
an independent people and nation ; and, as such, levied 
and collected taxes, raised and supported armies, practical- 
ly exercised all the sovereign powers of an independent 
nation, waged a great public war with the United States 
with wonderful energy and often with surprising success, 
and maintained a Confederate Government, as a Govern- 
ment de facto, for more than four years. 

The people in all the low country and near the coast, 
where slaves were numerous, were nearly unanimous in 
support of the Confederate Government, and sustained 
it with great enthusiasm ; which indicates the principal 
moving cause of the revolution and rebellion. In the 
hill countries in the interior, where there were few slaves, 
a majority of the people remained friendly to the Union 
and Federal Government ; but were compelled by the 
laws of the revolutionists, and by force, to support the 
Confederate Government. 

The manner in which the slaves generally clung to their 
masters was truly surprising ; and it is idle to pretend 
that there was a much larger proportion of either slaves 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 609 

or free colored men than of white men, in the seceding 
States, who were, in any proper sense of the word, loyal 
and faithful to the Constitution and Government of the 
United States. More than three-fourths of the whites, 
and as large a proportion of the slaves, labored assidu- 
ously and faithfully to support and maintain the Confed- 
erate Government. 

The legislation of Congress and the action of President 
Lincoln during the whole war, invited the insurgents to 
lay down their arms, return to their allegiance to the 
Constitution and Government of the United States, and 
to resume their station again in the Federal Government, 
with all their original rights unimpaired — with only two 
exceptions : First, they were required to emancipate their 
slaves, and give up slavery ; and secondly, they were re- 
quired to submit to all the new enactments of Congress, 
including the new official oath imposed by Congress, by 
act of July, 1862, upon its members, and upon all officers 
of the Federal Government — which renders ineligible to 
a seat in Congress, or to any office under the Government 
of the United States, all persons who participated in the 
rebellion, or in the action of the Confederate Govern- 
ment. The exigences of the Federal Government im- 
periously demanded such a law and such an oath ; there 
is no reason to doubt that they are within the spirit and 
general terms of the Federal Constitution — that a fair 
construction of that instrument justifies their adoption 
— and that they will ever, hereafter, be maintained as just, 
necessary, and proper. 

The rebels refused to accept the terms offered to them, 
until after they were conquered and compelled to sur- 
render their arms ; but as the terms proffered were con- 
tinued and were not withdrawn, they then claimed the 
benefit of them, as they had a right to do ; and with the 
aid of the administration of President Johnson, and in 
accordance with the policy prescribed by President 
Lincoln in his lifetime, and the laws then in force, they 
re-organized their State governments, repudiated their 
revolutionary governments and the debts contracted by 
them, elected senators and representatives to Congress, 
and offered, and claimed the right, to resume their former 

26* 



6 10 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

stations in the Federal Government, in accordance with 
the Constitution. Their senators and members present- 
ed themselves at the opening of Congress, in December, 
1865, and were refused admission to their seats, under 
various pretences ; and a joint committee of both houses, 
(unknown to the Constitution and laws) was appointed, 
upon the subject of the reconstruction of the Union. 
Some weeks afterwards, the senators and members from 
Tennessee were admitted to their seats ; but those from 
the other ten seceding States have all been excluded, and 
are still excluded. 

In June, 1866, the Joint Committee on Reconstruction 
reported amendments to the Constitution of the United 
States, and both houses agreed upon an amendment 
which they submitted to the States for ratification. It 
is known as the 14th amendment, and consists of five 
articles ; but Congress very unwisely neglected and 
refused to pass any act, or make any provision, for 
admitting into Congress the senators and representatives 
of any State which might adopt and ratify the proposed 
amendment ; President Johnson, unfortunately and vety 
tmwisely, opposed any and all amendments to the Constitu- 
tion ; and the legislatures of all the seceding States re- 
fused to ratify the proposed 14th amendment, and deter- 
mined to appeal to the people of the North, to sustain 
the Constitution as it is. 

It seems very certain : 1st. That the whites of the 
seceding States accepted with great unanimity the issues 
of the war, including the 13th amendment to the Constitu- 
tion of the United States, abolishing slavery ; were ready 
to come back into the Union, and abide by the Constitu- 
tion as amended ; and had no intention of rebelling 
again, or making any illegal resistance to the Constitu- 
tion and the legitimate acts of Congress. 

2d. That the views, feelings, and opinions of nine-tenths 
of them were and are intensely hostile to the negro- 
equality policy of the Republican party, and to the pro- 
posed 14th amendment to the Constitution. 

3d. That the most of them are opposed to any and all 
Federal and State laws, or amendments to the Constitu- 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 6ll 

tion of the United States, to secure fully the civil rights 
of the colored population. 

4th. That the most of the people are hostile to the act 
of Congress of July 2d, 1 862, imposing an official oath which 
disqualifies all who have ever been rebels from holding 
office under the Federal Government ; and opposed to 
any amendment to the Constitution, which would sanc- 
tion such oath, and make the disqualification permanent. 

5 th. That they were generally determined to retain all 
the powers and privileges which the Federal Constitution 
recognizes as vested in and retained by the States, and 
to resist all amendments thereto ; and that the rebel 
leaders were determined to retain the control of their 
State governments, and to regain, as far as possible, 
their former position and influence in the Federal 
Government. 

6th. That many of the former slave-holders have 
entertained hopes of some indemnity from Congress, for 
the loss of their slaves ; and many holders of illegal war 
bonds and debts have had hopes of final payment of a 
portion of them, either from Congress or from their 
respective States ; and such classes are hostile to any 
such amendment to the Constitution as that embraced in 
the 4th section of the proposed 14th amendment. 

Such being the views, determinations, and hopes of the 
late insurgent population of the South, it seems not only 
eminently proper, but really necessary, that such disturb- 
ing questions should be put at rest, by amendments to 
the Federal Constitution, embracing the most of the 
provisions contained in the 14th amendment proposed by 
Congress. The great national conservative convention 
of August, 1866, at Philadelphia, evaded the questions 
involved in the proposed amendment, and arraigned the 
Republican majority in Congress, for refusing to admit 
loyal senators and representatives from the South, who 
would take the official oath prescribed. The action of 
Congress towards those States, and the partisan objects 
and motives of the members, are things very different 
from the merits of the proposed amendment. The former 
may be condemned as wrong, and the latter mostly ap- 
proved as right. The substance of that amendment, with 



6l2 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

some modifications, ought to have accompanied the 13th 
amendme7it, and then there conld have been no reasonable 
objection to it. 

The war and its results rendered another amendment 
to the Constitution proper, and even necessary ; and even 
the great oversight in the 13th amendment, in emancipa- 
ting the slaves without providing that the Southern States 
should not have an increased representation by reason 
thereof, rendered a further amendment just and neces- 
sary. In that particular, the Republicans are consistent, 
and the South are inconsistent. The former say, that if 
the negroes are not allowed to vote, they should not be 
represented in Congress, the same as the white popula- 
tion ; and my belief is, that nine-tenths of the Northern 
and Western people will agree, that if the negroes are so 
inferior as a race, as to be ti?ifit to exercise the elective 
franchise, the Southern whites should not have a full 
representation in Congress, and in tJie electoral colleges for 
President, for them. The provision of the Constitution, 
allowing a representation for three-fifths of the slaves, 
was a fair compromise ; and it might very properly be 
applied to all the colored population now, whether they 
be allowed to vote or not. The productive industry of 
five colored men is not, as a general rule, equal to that 
of three white men. 

All the alteration needed in the 1st section of the pro- 
posed 14th amendment, is to insert the words civil rights, 
before the word privileges, so as to remove all obscurity, 
and clearly limit the section to civil rights. 

Strike out of the 3d section the words, or under any 
State, and thereby confine it to Federal offices, and it 
would be much less extensive in its operation than the 
test oath now is. There would then be no reasonable 
objection to it. 

The 4th and 5th sections are right, and need no 
change ; and much good, with no very great evil, would 
be likely to arise from adopting the whole amendment 
as it is. It is impossible now to change it. The modifi- 
cation of the test oath, as applied to Federal offices, 
would be a positive good, of great influence. 

Such was the confusion in which the country was in- 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 6lJ 

volved at the time of the elections in October and No- 
vember, 1 866. Each party was partly right, and partly 
wrong. The great error of the conservatives was, in not 
recommending a proper substitute for the proposed 14th 
amendment. The results of that election may be regard- 
ed as a pretty loud response of the Northern and Western 
people, in support of the principles of that amendment ; 
which will probably never be yielded. They will never 
allow the colored population to be again subjected to any 
species of slavery, or deprived of any civil rights enjoyed 
by white men. But social and political rights involve 
very different considerations. 

The results of the election in 1866 emboldened the 
dominant party in Congress, as a party measure, and for 
partisan purposes, to pass the reconstruction acts of 1867, 
— to subject all those States to military rule, and to es- 
tablish universal negro suffrage, and negro supremacy and 
domination. It is my purpose in this work to state 
merely the leading facts, and not to discuss in detail the 
merits and demerits, nor the constitutionality, of those 
very extraordinary acts. But I must be permitted to 
say, that to subject the Southern States to the political 
supremacy and government of the colored population, 
looks to me like the most fiendish political act ever at- 
tempted in America. 

It is folly for the Southern people to look quietly upon 
the reconstruction acts of Congress as revolutionary 
measures, and gross usurpations of power, which are un- 
constitutional and voidable in futiire. The President is 
stripped of all substantial power, and the whole power 
of the Government is practically wielded by Congress, 
and by military and executive officers who recognize their 
authority, and execute their acts and resolutions, whether 
they are in accordance with the Constitution or not. It 
is difficult to find any remedy, except in revolution and 
war. 

The indications now are, that the 14th amendment 
will be adopted ; and it seems impossible for the South to 
prevent it. The prospects are that all, or nearly all the 
seceding States will soon be ushered into the Union 
under new Constitutions, framed and designed to dis- 



6 14 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

franchise a large portion of the white population, and to 
establish and perpetuate universal negro suffrage, and negro 
supremacy. 

If those who participated in the rebellion, and are 
rendered ineligible to office by the 3d section of the 14th 
amendment, can be allowed the right of suffrage, and the 
enjoyment of their property and civil rights, it is all they 
need expect. The indications are that they will never 
be allowed again to hold office, either under the Federal 
or State Governments. They may as well submit to 
their fate as a necessity ; approve, ratify, and confirm the 
14th amendment,- and thereby recognize and secure the 
civil rights of the colored population, enlist the sym- 
pathies of all the conservative men of the North and West 
in their favor, and exert all their energies in resisting the 
efforts of the radicals to force tipon them universal negro 
suffrage, and negro supremacy. 

What may be the fate of our Union and Government, 
and what the destiny of our country, is very uncertain. 

Great political ambition, violent party spirit, intense 
sectionalism, delusions upon the subject of the negro, 
and disregard for constitutional law, are all dangerous 
elements ; which may again involve our country in civil 
war and anarchy, and result in the destruction of the 
Union, and thf formation of several minor confederacies. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

British North America. 

Sec. i. Tables of population and immigration. 

I. Statement of the population of the following prov- 
inces, according to the reports of the census of 1848, 
185 1, and 1861 ; except Newfoundland, which was for 
1858, instead of 1861 : 

1848. 1851. 1861. 

Lower Canada 768,334 890,261 1,111,566 

Upper Canada 723,292 952,004 1,396,091 

New Brunswick 156,162 193,800 252,047 

Nova Scotia and Cape Breton 199,906 276,177 330,857 

Prince Edward Island 62,678 *66,ooo 80,857 

Newfoundland 96,506 *io3,5oo 124,288 

Aggregate 2,006,878 2,481,742 3,295,706 

Estimated for January, 1867, in the Year Book and ) , 

Almanac of British North America of 1867, at . . j 3>9/o,244 

The progress of the population previous to 1848 is 
stated in vol. i. pages 594 to 598. 

II. Nativities of the people : 

N t - Lower Upper New Three other 

Canada. Canada. Brunswick. Provinces. 

of the Provinces 1,017,925 911,963 208,166 478,009 

of England and Wales. . 13,821 114,914 4,909 9,723 

of Scotland 13*204 98,892 5,199 22,922 

of Ireland S°y337 I 9 I >43 1 3<V79 22,217 

of foreign countries ... . 16,279 78,891 3,594 3, 131 

Total 1,1 1 1,566 1,396,091 252,047 536,002 

* The numbers put down for Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland 
for 1 85 1 are estimates based on the numbers reported previous and sub- 
sequent years. 



6l6 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 

The Year Book and Almanac of British North America 
referred to, puts down the number of inhabitants of French 
descent — 

in Lower Canada in 1861 at 847,320 

in Upper Canada in 1861 at 33*287 

in New Brunswick in 1861 at 25,000 

and in the other provinces at 55,859 

Total of French descent 961,466, 

and says there were, at the date of the census of 1861, 
probably a million of people of Irish descent in those 
provinces — and that of the remainder, of about a million 
and a quarter, about half were of Scottish, and half of 
English parentage. It omits to state that the fugitive 
slaves from the United States and their descendants 
numbered from forty to fifty thousand. 

The Year Book and Almanac of British North Amer- 
ica for 1867 says, " From 1829 to 1865, inclusive, 
1,034,765 emigrants arrived at the port of Quebec. 

From 1830 to 185 1, the numbers exceeded 30,000 an- 
nually, in 1852 they numbered 39,176, and in 1854 the 
arrivals of emigrants at Quebec were 53,189. Since 
that time, the immigration has fallen off, and was only 
8,778 in 1859 — 86,274 in five years, 1856 to i860, inclu- 
sive, and 102,020 in five years, 1861 to 1865, inclusive. 

From 1830 to 1855, large amounts were expended in 
Canada for canals and railroads, which created a demand 
for labor, and attracted great numbers of emigrants to 
that country; but since 1857 there has been but little 
demand there for laborers, and the most of the Irish em- 
igrants have come to the United States, where business 
has been more active, the demand for laborers much 
greater, and wages higher. Very few emigrants have 
settled in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, or any of the 
other provinces. 



BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 617 

Sec. 2. Religious divisions of the people, according to the 
census of 1861. 

Upper Lower New Three other 

Canada. Canada. Brunswick. Provinces. 

Church of Rome 258,141 943,253 85,238 179,347 

Church of England 311,565 63,487 42,776 99,714 

Presbyterians 303,384 43735 3 6 ,°72 115,455 

Methodists 341,572 30,660 25,637 60,519 

Baptists 61,559 7,751 57,730 65,490 

Lutherans 24,299 857 113 4,382 

Congregationalists 9,357 4,927 1,290 2,530 

Miscellaneous 60,718 9,691 2,664 5,662 

Not stated 25,496 7,205 527 2,903 

Total 1,396,091 1,111,566 252,047 536,002 

The Church of England has some reserves of lands, 
but no tithes ; and Protestants and Catholics live together 
harmoniously in the same cities, villages, and in the same 
communities in the country, as they do in the United 
States. 



Sec 3. Farms and agricultural capital of the Provinces. 

Number of horses in the Provinces in 1861. 725,744 

" " milch cows in 1861 1,006,875 

" " other cattle " 1,369,082 

" " sheep " 2,517,781 

" " swine " 1,278,699 

Live stock valued at $1 20,000,000 

Acres of improved lands in farms 13,061,610 

" unimproved lands in farms 17,036,887 

Cash value of farms over $546,000,000 

" " agricultural implements $25,000,000 



Total amount of agricultural capital. . .$691,000,000 

Sec. 4. Occupatiojis of the people of the Provinces. 

Number of farmers 342,649 

" " mechanics and handicraftsmen 118,245 

Carried forward 460,894 



6l8 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 

Brought forward 460,894 

Laborers, including lumbermen 21 1,243 

Employed in trade and commerce 33,8 13 

Mariners and fishermen 89,65 1 

Miners 1,207 

Professional men 10,367 

Miscellaneous 30,543 



Total 837,718 

Sec. 5. Agricultural products in i860, as reported with 
the census. 

Upper Canada. Five other Provinces. Total. 

Wheat bush. 24,620,425 3,593,335 28,213,760 

Barley " 2,821,962 870,059 3,692,021 

Oats " 21,220,874 24,413,932 45,634,806 

Buckwheat.. " 1,248,637 2,399,813 3,648,450 

Indian corn . " 2,256,290 367,810 2,624,100 

Potatoes.... " 15,325,920 15,180,439 30,506,359 

Pease " 9,601,396 2,700,787 12,302,183 

Turnips " 18,206,959 2,442,732 20,649,691 

Hay tons. 861,844 i,395>8c>9 2,257,653 

Butter lbs. 26,828,264 25,877,590 52,705,854 

Wool " 3,659,766 3,571,145 7,230,911 

Pork " 67,348,800 63,711,769 131,060,569 

A large portion of Upper Canada has a good climate, 
and is a productive country ; but the climate of the other 
provinces is pretty cold, and they are not very productive, 
in comparison with the upper provinces — as is shown 
by the foregoing table. 

Sec. 6. Railroads — their cost and income for the year 

1865. 

U. & L. Canada. N. Brunswick. Nova Scotia. 

Miles in operation 2,188 196 93 

Cost of roads and equipments.^ 12 1,543, 189 $7,497,713 $4,319,507 

Receipts 10,910,678 187,313 183,954 

Working expenses and re- 7 r r 

newafe.... \ 7,i34,io2 133,526 159,069 

Net income 3,776,576 53,787 24,885 



BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 619 

Grand Trunk road. Great Western. Northern. 

Miles in operation i,377 345 97 

Cost of road and equipments. $80,704,095 $23,855,881 $5,457,789 

Receipts 6,470,998 3,370,637 506,748 

Working expenses and re- ) „«'„/;,. , -v'i - * X~h , 

' newals C 4,932,764 1,545,595 275,941 

Net income 1,538,234 1,825,042 230,807 

While the net income of the Great Western road, from 
Niagara Falls to Detroit, which is supported mostly by 
United States travel, was nearly 6f per cent, on its cost 
and equipments, the net income of the Grand Trunk 
was less than 2 per cent. ; that of the Northern road 
about 4 ; and the income of all the other roads was but 
little more than the running expenses and cost of repairs. 
The Provinces are too sparsely settled, and too destitute 
of manufacturing population, to admit of much travel to 
support so expensive roads ; and the roads come in 
competition too much with navigable waters to be sup- 
ported by the transportation of agricultural products ; and 
hence, as investments of capital, all the roads, except the 
Great Western, pay very poorly. The capital to make 
and equip the roads was furnished by British capitalists, 
who own the most of the stock. 

Sec. 7. Canals and public debts of the Provinces. 

The canals and river and harbor improvements of 
Canada have cost over 21 millions of dollars. The 
public debts of the several colonies were contracted in 
Great Britain for such purposes, and for railroads, and 
other public works. The Provinces were confederated 
in 1867, under the name of the Dominion of Canada. 

The funded and floating debt of the colonies, June 30, 
1865, exclusive of banks and miscellaneous accounts, 
were as follows : 

Upper and Lower Canada $61,744,651 

New Brunswick 5,821,445 

Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. . . . 5,627,458 

Prince Edward Island 161,560 

Newfoundland 1,161,564 

Total of the Provinces $74,516,678 



620 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 

Sec. 8. Productive industry, exports, and valuation of 
property. 

No valuation of the products of agriculture, of the 
mines or the forests, or of mechanical industry, was 
taken and reported with the census ; and no estimates 
of those branches of industry are given in the Year 
Book and Almanac for British North America. That 
Almanac states the value of the fish caught in i860 at 
$9,173,063. _ 

The business of mining is comparatively small ; 
but the lumbering business in Canada is large. Some 
idea of the magnitude of the various branches of in- 
dustry may be obtained from the exports of their pro- 
ducts. 

Summary statement of the value of each of the great 
classes of Canadian products, exported during the fiscal 
year ending June 30, 1866 : 

Products of the mines $422,570 

" " fisheries 980,311 

forest 13,846,986 

Animals and their products 12,682,683 

Other agricultural products 16,65 1 »°74 

Manufactures 989,936 

Coin and bullion 2 >397>59 T 

Other articles 668,8 1 5 

Aggregate $48,639,966 

Fifty-eight vessels built at Quebec and sold. 1,616,886 



Total value of exports as reported $50,256,852 

The exports include 630,097 tons of timber, 
equal to nearly 400 million feet, board mea- 
sure, valued at $3,883,718 

465-f- million feet boards and plank, valued at 4,683,075 

5,394,700 deals, valued at 1,992,033 

240,193 cords of firewood, valued at 462,566 

and 128,380 saw logs, valued at ^ 118,796 



BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 62 1 

The Year Book and Almanac referred to says, " The 
lumber trade employs in the forest alone 15,000 men, 
and in the partial manufacture of lumber over 2,000 mills, 
and at least 10,000 men. It further employs at Quebec, 
about 1,200 vessels, of an aggregate capacity of 700,000 
tons ; besides 500,000 of lake and canal tonnage. Seven- 
teen thousand seamen are engaged in carrying its pro- 
ducts from Quebec to Europe ; and 8,000 more, in their 
transportation on inland waters." 

The value of taxable property in all the provinces 
named, is estimated and stated in the Year Book and 
Almanac referred to, as follows : 

Agricultural capital (ante, sec. 3) $691,000,000 

Real estate in cities, towns, and villages . . 200,000,000 

Paid up stock in banks 40,000,000 

Value of miscellaneous stocks 50,000,000 

Goods on hand in stores, over debts due. . 50,000,000 

Value of shipping 30,000,000 

" " other personal property 75,000,000 

Total $1,136,000,000 

equal to about $345 to each person. 

The miscellaneous stocks, valued at 50 millions of 
dollars, I suppose include the railroad stocks owned 
by residents of the provinces, subject to the debts of 
the companies, which are due to citizens of Great Britain. 
The most of these stocks are owned in England. The 
75 millions of personal property at the foot of the list, 
must include household furniture, books, watches and 
plate, carriages, and all the tools and movable capital, 
except shipping, employed in manufacturing, the mechanic 
arts, mining, and lumbering. 

The reader will see, from the above, that the capital 
and industry employed in manufactures and the mechanic 
arts, must be very small, as is the fact. It is (in truth) 
impossible for the mechanic arts and manufactures to 
grow up and flourish, under the colonial system of Eng- 
land, and the system of free trade with the mother country ; 
by which the latter supplies her colonies with all the 



622 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 

products of her factories and workshops, which they are 
able to pay for, keeps them constantly in her debt, and 
discourages their efforts to manufacture for themselves. 
It was the same system, applied during the 18th century 
with a little more rigor, to restrain manufacturing and 
mechanical industry in the colonies, which was the prin- 
cipal cause of the great American revolution of 1776. 
The tax on tea was a source of irritation, but in reality 
more a pretext than a cause. 



Sec. 9. Mother England *s Canada farm. 

The Canada farm and forests are rich treasures to mother 
England. The Canadians take care of the farm and the 
forest, secure the furs, cut and carry the timber and 
lumber to market, raise grain and stock, make butter and 
cheese, beef and pork, and divide the proceeds with mother 
England, and send her share to her in kind, as her 
mistress and creditor, and in payment for her manufac- 
tures. 

Canada furnishes a large market for the manufactures, 
and a profitable field of investment for the surplus capital 
of the mother country ; and also numerous offices and 
places to be filled by the aristocracy and the capitalists 
of England, with their own friends and proteges ; while 
the native colonists must look on. The people are not 
in a state of peonage, like thousands of the laboring 
classes of Mexico, nor weighed down with tithes, the 
laws of primogeniture, the entailment of property, absentee 
landlordism, and an overcrowded population — as Ireland 
is ; but they are borne down with debt* which co-operates 
with the colonial system, and helps to hold them in leading 
strings, in a state of dependence, directs their industry, 
and effectually prevents the growth of manufacturing in- 
dustry among them. The expenditure among them of 
large amounts of British capital for railroads and other 
public improvements having ceased, they will soon drain 

* The depressing effects of foreign debts are shown ante, pages 112 to 
115, and vol. I., 382 to 385. 



BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 62$ 

the debtor's cup of Free trade to the very dregs. Their 
condition will be improved by their Confederation ; but 
it will still be a constant warning to the people of the 
United States. 



Sec io. Vancouver's Island, British Columbia, and the 
Hudson's Bay territories, 

Vancouver's Island and British Columbia are under 
one Governor, who resides at Victoria, on that Island. 
The white population on the mainland consists mostly 
of miners, and is very fluctuating, and uncertain. The 
Almanach de Gotha for 1868, on the authority of statis- 
tical tables relating to the colonial and other possessions 
of Great Britain, published at London in 1867, states 
the population of those colonies at 13,671, exclusive of 
the Indian population, which, it says, numbered in 1861 
about 45,000. . 

The number of Indians in the Hudson's Bay ter- 
ritories east of the Rocky Mountains, has been various- 
ly estimated at from 100,000 to over 300,000. It is 
pretty well ascertained that the whole number of Indians 
in the United States and territories, does not exceed 
300,000 ; and it is not probable that they equal that 
number in all British North America. 

The Indians in all the British provinces now confed- 
erated and known as the Dominion of Canada, includ- 
ing Labrador, which is under the jurisdiction of New- 
foundland, has been ascertained (with some approxima- 
tion to accuracy), to number only about 20,000 (see vol. 
I., page 612). Calling the Indians of British Columbia 
and Vancouver's Island 45,000, as estimated by the 
Government, and it may well be doubted if they number 
125,000 in the Hudson's Bay territories, making in all 
British North America 190,000 ; which, in my judgment, 
is an over-estimate. 



624 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 

Recapitulation of the population. 

1851. 1861. 

Confederated provinces, white*. .2,481,742 3,295,706 

" " Indians . 20,000 20,000 

Vancouver's Island and ) ,.. £m 

British Columbia. . . | whlte - ' ' I ' 000 l 3&* 

" " Indians.. 45,000 45,000 

Hudson's Bay territories, white . . 500 700 

" " Indians. 125,000 125,000 



« 



Total 2,673,242 3.500,077 

Total in 1841, about 1,815,000 

* Including from forty to fifty thousand negroes. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 



EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 

Sec. i. Population of Great Britain and Ireland, and 
their colonies and possessions ', at different periods. 

Statement of the population, by the reports of the 
census, taken in the following years : 

1841. 1851. 1861. 

England 15,000,154 16,921,878 18,954,444 

Wales 911,603 1,005,731 1,111,780 

Scotland 2,620,184 2,888,742 3,062,294 

Adjacent Isles 124,040 143,126 143,447 

Ireland 8,175,124 6,552,386 5,79 8 ,9 6 7 

Army and Navy 209,926 162,490 250,356 

Total 27,041,031 27,674,353 29,321,288 

Heligoland : . . 2,200 2,230 2,172 

Gibraltar *i2,ooo 12,182 15,462 

Malta and Gozza *i2o,ooo 128,361 147,683 

British Asia (ante, 321 & 322) .148,000,000 157,600,000 173,500,000 

Australia.Tasmania, andNewV „ ,y m , „ Cm 

Zealand (ante, 3 45) J 2 °°' 000 465 '°°° 1 ^ 6 ^ 00 ° 

Cape of Good Hope and. . . \ 158,000 *2 10,000 270,000 

British Caffraria j *6o,ooo *7o,ooo 81,353 

Natal (see ante, 358) 1 10,000 130,000 157,583 

Mauritius and ) 142,000 183,506 313,462 

Seychelles (ante, 359 to 361)} 7,000 8,001 9,055 

Sierra Leone (ante, 362) 44,935 44>5or 41,624 

Gambia (ante, 363) 5,000 5,502 6,939 

Gold coast (ante, 364) 150,000 *i5o,ooo 151,346 

St. Helena (ante, 365) 5,400 6,000 6,860 

British West Indies (ante, 512) 784,000 853,659 941,895 

British Honduras (ante, 521). . 9,000 15,000 25,635 

British Guiana (ante, 522) 110,000 135,994 148,026 

British North America, ) - ~ £~ „ -. ~~ 

(ante, 624) . . . . : ( 1,815,000 2,673,000 3,500,000 

British Empire 178,775,566 190,367,289 209,905,450 

* These are all estimates from the census, or official reports of other years. 

27 



626 EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 

The census of 1871 will probably show the British 
Empire as comprising about 235 millions of inhabitants ; 
and the Anglo-American Republic will then have over 
40 millions — making 275 millions, or about one-fourth 
part of the human family, subject to English and Anglo- 
American law, imbued with English and American ideas 
and customs, and speaking or learning the English lan- 
guage, — the language of liberty and constitutional law, 
and rapidly becoming the language of the commercial 
world. 

The people of the colonies are, in some respects, better 
off than those of the mother country. They are exempt 
from her unjust, oppressive tithing system, and free from 
laws of primogeniture and the practice of entails ; which 
form the great incubus that weighs down both England 
and Ireland. In these particulars the British colonists 
have been allowed to adopt the principles of Anglo- 
American law and usage. 

The British people and colonists are doing much to 
educate the world in the useful and industrial arts ; in 
the principles and practice of liberty and law, and free 
institutions ; and in Protestant civilization and Christian- 
ity. They are constantly diffusing the elements of civ- 
ilization and progress, to elevate the people of distant 
continents, and of the isles of the ocean. The mother 
country is sending out, annually, great numbers of emi- 
grants, a majority of whom come to the United States, 
but large numbers go to her Australian and Asiatic 
colonies, and many to her dominions in North America. 

The number of emigrants from Great Britain and Ire- 
land, during each period of ten years, from 1821 to i860 
inclusive, has been as follows : 

To 1821 to 1830. 1831 to 1840. 1841 to 1850. 1851 to i860. 

The United States 99,801 308,247 1,094,556 1,495,243 

North American colonies . . 139,269 322,485 429,044 235,285 

Australian colonies ........ 6,4.17 67,882 127,124 506,802 

Other places 1,805 4,536 34,i68 49> 8 75 

Total 247,292 703,150 1,684,892 2,287,205 

Total in 40 years (1821 to i860) 4,922,539 



EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 627 

Sec. 2. Area and population of France, and of her col- 
onies and possessions at different periods. 

The area of France, prior to i860, including Corsica, 
was reported at 52,768,618 hectares, equal to 203,736 
English square miles. By treaty with Italy, Savoy and 
a part of the Province of Nice were annexed to France 
in i860. The area of France and of the territories an- 
nexed, and the population thereof, December 31, 1856, 
were as follows : 

Area in sq m. Population. 

France (prior to i860) 203,736 36,039,364 

Savoy 4,197 581,833 

Nice 850 125,220 

Total 208,783 36,746,417 

Increase to 1866 nearly 4 per cent 1,445,677 

Population by the census of Dec. 31, 1866 38,192,094 

Population of France, by the reports of the census of 
the under-mentioned years, and of her colonies as official- 
ly reported, or estimated. 

1841. 1851. 1861. 

France 34,194,875 35,781,628 37,472,732 

Algiers 2,600,000 2,800,000 2,999,124 

Pondicherry, etc., in Asia 167,790 192,000 220,000 

In Africa : 

Island of Reunion (ante, 398) 120,000 150,000 190,000 
Mayott and dependencies > 

(ante, 399 X ' - ' * * * I9 ' 797 

Senegal and dependencies) „««„„ ,«„„„ tt^^t 

(ante, 397) .... \ 20 ' 000 4 °> 000 * I 3' 2 9 I 

In America : 

Martinique (ante, 488) 120,000 123,700 135,000 

Guadeloupe and dependen- > T „«« rt « ,„„™~ T „o ^ 

cies (ante, 487) • • \ I3 °' 00 ° I34 '°°° I38 '°°° 

French Guiana (ante, 524) . . . 21,648 22,000 24,951 

St. Pierre and Miquelon 1,33% *,7°o 2,200 

In Oceanica: Marquesas Isl. 7 

(ante, 478) j '— I0 >° 00 ' I0 '° 00 

New Caledonia (ante, 469) 55,ooo 

Society Islands (ante, 477) 10,347 

French Empire 37,375,651 39, 2 55,°28 41,390,442 



628 EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 

Statement of the population in 1861 according to their 
religious opinions and creeds. 

France. Algiers. France and Algiers. 

Catholics 35734,667 185,100 35,919,767 

Protestants 1,561,250 6,736 1,567,986 

Israelites 156,000 29,007 185,007 

Mahometans 2,778,281 2,778,281 

Creed unknown 20,815 20,815 

Total 37,472,732 2,999,124 40,471,856 

The increase of population in France is small, when 
compared with Great Britain, and nearly all the northern 
countries of Europe. The increase of the population of 
France has always been slow ; and yet not one-tenth 
part as many emigrate from that country as from Great 
Britain. The increase prior to 1850 is stated in vol. i., 
pages 550 and 551, and 556 to 558. 

The colonies of France have never been very success- 
ful, either in Asia or America, but more so recently in 
Algeria. Africa seems to be the proper field for French 
colonial operations — where they can do much to promote 
the cause of civilization and Christianity. 

Sec. 3. Holland, or Netherlands, and her colonies and 
possessions. 

The country formerly known as The Seven United 
Provinces, of which Holland was the principal, is now 
divided into ten Provinces, and may be distinguished as 
Holland ; to which have been attached a part of the 
Duchies of Limburg and Luxemburg. The area of the 
former is about 1 1,760 square miles, Limburg 850, and 
Luxemburg 990 — making an aggregate of 1 3,600 English 
square miles in the kingdom. The population as reported 
in the census at different periods was as follows : 

Holland The Duchies. Total. 

1838, January i 2,583,366 *332,ooo 2,915,366 

1851, " ' 2,874,553 |393>o85 3.267,638 

1861, " 3,107,585 413,831 3,521,416 

iZtt, " 3,306,529 429,153 3,735,682 

* January i, 1837, for Limburg and Luxemburg, 
t January 1, 1849, for Luxemburg. 



EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 629 

The increase of the population of the Netherlands has 
not been rapid, for they have sent out great numbers of 
emigrants to their East India colonies ; but it has been 
very regular — having been over 28 per cent, in 28 years, 
from 1838 to January 1, 1866, and over 6 per cent, in 
five years, from January 1, 1 861, to January, 1866. (See 
vol. i., pages 567 to 569). 

The progress of the population of the Dutch East 
India islands and possessions, is stated, ante, p. 442 and 
443 ; and of the Dutch West Indies, ante, 489 and 490. 



Sec. 4. Progress of the population of Belgium. 

Belgium and the portion of the Duchies of Limburg 
and Luxemburg attached to it, have an area of 2,945,539 
hectares, equal to about 13,375 square miles. The popula- 
tion, as officially reported at different periods, was as 
follows : 

1837, January 1 4,242,600 

1846, " 4,335,319 

1850, " 4,426,202 

1856, " 4,530,228 

1861, " 4,731,961 

1866, " 4,984,451 

For the progress of the population previous to 1837, 
see vol. i., p. 568. The population is too dense to admit 
of a very rapid increase ; but it seems to have felt the 
impulse of railroads, for since the era of railroads (about 
the year 1850) the increase has been more rapid than it 
was from 1837 to 1850. 



Sec. 5. Progress of the population of Portugal. 

The area of Portugal is about 35,180 square miles, and 
that of the Azores and Madeira islands about 1,480 — 
making a total of 36,660 square miles. 

The population at different periods was reported as 
follows : 



63O EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 

Portugal. The Islands. 

1826 (Malte-Brun) 3,214,000 

1841 3,412,500 330,500 

185 1 3,487,025 342,488 

1857 3,568,895 339,9 6( 5 

1861 , 3,693,362 341,968 

1863, Dec. 31 3,986,558 363,658 

The Cape Verd Islands, having a population in 1864 
of 84,191, belong to Portugal. That kingdom also exer- 
cises dominion over large countries in South Western, 
and South Eastern Africa, and in the East Indian archi- 
pelago. 

Sec. 6. Spain — -progress of the population. 

The Balearic Islands are a cluster of islands in the 
Mediterranean Sea, upon the coast of Spain, forming a 
province of that kingdom, having an area of about 1,757 
square miles, and about 253,000 inhabitants, in 1849. 
They are included as forming a part of Spain. 

The Canary Islands, lying at a distance in the Atlantic 
Ocean, and having about 250,000 inhabitants, are not so 
included ; though they belong to Spain. 

The population, including the Balearic Islands, has 
been stated as follows : 

1826 (per Malte-Brun) 13,560,000 

1838 by McCulloch 11,968,824 

1849 ^ Almanach de Gotha 13,958,000 

1857 " " 15,220,468 

i860, Dec, per Annuaire of Paris.. . 16,673,481 
1864 per Almanach de Gotha 16,031,267 

These are all estimates, based on partial and imperfect 
enumerations. The reports indicate that no full and ac- 
curate enumeration of the inhabitants of Spain was ever 
made ; and yet the reports are entitled to some credit ; 
and there is no reason to doubt that there has been a 
considerable increase of the population and of the pro- 
ductive industry of that country, during the last fifty 



EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 63 1 

years, since the destruction of the Popish Inquisition, 
(see vol. i., p. 554 and 555). Spain has felt, to some 
extent, the influence of modern science and improvement, 
and has constructed a few miles of railroad. 

Sec. 7. Switzerland — area and progress of the popula- 
tion. 

Switzerland has an area of about 15,715 square miles. 
The population, as reported in the census at different 
periods, has been as follows : 

Catholics. Protestants & Jews. Total. 

1822, (Malte-Brun) . . . 737,406 1,147,823 1,885,229 

1837, December 847,088 1,340,921 2,188,009 

1850, March 31 971,840 1,420,900 2,392,740 

i860, December 10 . . . 1,023,430 1,487,064* 2,510,494 

For want of a sufficient field of occupation at home, 
great numbers of the Swiss emigrate. The number of 
Swiss that came to the United States from 1820 to i860 
inclusive, were reported at 37,733. 

Sec. 8. Italy — the progress of the population. 

After the defeat of the Austrians by the French and 
Sardinians at Magenta and Solferino in 1859, the Em- 
peror of Austria ceded Lombardy to Napoleon, who 
ceded it to Victor Emanuel, King of Sardinia, and got in 
exchange the Provinces of Savoy and Nice, which were 
ceded by Victor Emanuel to France. The Duchies of 
Parma and Modena, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, and 
Romagna, one of the Provinces of the Pope, were an- 
nexed by Victor Emanuel to his kingdom in March, 
i860; the Marches and Ombria (other provinces of the 
Church), and the kingdom of Naples and Sicily, were 
annexed by him in November, i860. In March, 1861, 
he assumed the title of King of Italy ; and after the 
defeat of the Austrians by the Prussians in 1866, the 
province of Venetia was ceded by the Emperor of 

* Including in i860, 4,216 Jews and non-Christians. 



632 EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 

Austria to Victor Emanuel, and now forms part of the 
kingdom of Italy. 

Statement of the population of the principal divisions 
of Italy, as officially reported at the under-mentioned 
periods : 

Years. Population. Years. Population. 

Venetia 1838 2,100,500 1851 2,281.732 

Lombardy 1838 2,528,854 1851 2,725740 

Sardinia in 1838 4.650,368 1848 4,916,084 

Tuscany 1836 1,436,785 1851, Dec. 31. 1,761,140 

Parma 1833 465,673 1851 497,343 

Modena 1838 estimate 500,000 1850 586,458 

Naples and 7 . 1837 6,089,288 1851 6,640,679 

Sicily... J.1831 1,943,366 1851 2,135,000 

Papal States annexed. ) « g ( 1853 2,434,668 

retained. J X * 42 2 >9°VI5 j l853 690,000 

San Marino, 1840 7,000 1851 7,000 

Italy f 22,629,949 24,675,844 

Italy in 1825 per Malte-Brun 20,391,000 

Italy — estimate for 1841 — 23,200,000, estimate for 1851. .24,700,000 



1861, Dec. 31, Kingdom of Italy per census 21,776,950 

. " " " Roman States, remaining (estimate) 700,000 

" " " Venetia reported at 2,458,989 

" " " San Marino (republic) 7,000 

1861, Dec. All Italy 24,942,939 

The cession of Savoy and Nice to France, diminished 
the population of Italy in 1861 about 720,000. This 
calculation shows an increase in ten years (185 1 to 1861), 
of about 963,000, or nearly 4 per cent. ; which is about 
the same as that of France. The revolutions and wars 
from 1848 to 1 86 1 seem to have lessened the ratio of in- 
crease ; and the population is too dense, and the industry 
too small, to admit of a very rapid increase. 

Sec. 9. Austria — its subdivisions and population. 

Austria now comprises the countries and provinces of 
Upper and Lower Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia 
and Carniola, Tyrol, Illyria, Croatia, Dalmatia, Sclavonia, 

* States of the Church annexed to the Kingdom of Italy, 
t See vol. i., p. 551 for estimates of population prior to 1850. 



EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 633 

Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia, Transylvania, and 
the military frontiers ; and has an area of about 240,000 
English square miles. 

The population of the countries, kingdoms, and prov- 
inces now included in the Empire of Austria, has been 
stated by Malte-Brun for the year 1825, by McCulloch 
for the end of the year 1837, and by the Saxe Gotha Al- 
manachs for 1850 and 185 1, and again for Oct. 31, 1857, 
as follows : 

1825. Jan. 1, 1838. 1850 & 1851. Oct 1857. 

Bohemia 3,698,596 4,128,661 4,409,900 4,705,525 

Moravia and Silesia 1,968,713 2,143,052 2,238,424 2,311,006 

U. and L. Austria ) g 6 f 2,244,363 2,389,147 

and Salzburg., f 2 >°°Wo 2,191,300 j h6)0O7 146,769 

Tyrol 762,053 831,298 859,706 851,016 

Styria 829,731 94o,95i 1,006,971 1,056,773 

Illyria 1,124,193 1,209,951 1,291,196 1,305,375 

Hungary ^ 9» 2 9°»483 9,9°°^S 

sda™„ra nd . : : : : :• J 8 ' 893 ' 000 •%"*»& 868 >4* 6 8 76 ,oo 9 

Military frontiers . . 976,000 J 1,009,109 1,064,922 

Galicia 7 , 8r , 000 .6A2 827-J 4,555,477 4,597,47o 

Bukowina | 3,»73,ooo 4,042,827 j 380,826 456,920 

Dalmatia 350,000 381,476 393,7*5 404,499 

Transylvania 1,700,000 1,963,435 2,073,737 1,926,797 

Army 450,000 500,000 738,624 536,987 

Austria (Em.) 26,634,256 30,938,642 31,506,994 32,530,000 

No full and accurate enumeration of the inhabitants 
of the Empire has ever been made. All the official re- 
ports appear to have been based partly on estimates. 
As to Hungary particularly, the report for 1851 is quite 
too low for that of 1857 ; and the report of December, 
1837, is too high for either, by a million or more — though 
the population must have been reduced some, by the civil 
war of 1848 to 1849, an d the consequent derangements 
of industry, and emigration. Taking the whole Empire, 
the population seems to have increased as a general rule 
about five per cent, in ten years. This is indicated by 
the official reports and estimates ; and is consistent with 
the ratio of increase in other old countries, which have 
but little manufacturing industry and commerce. Many 
public roads have been made, and steam-navigation has 



27 



634 EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 

been introduced upon the rivers, seas, and gulfs, and 
railroads also, since 1830 ; and since 1850 there has been 
a relaxation of commercial prohibitions and restrictions ; 
all of which have tended to increase industry and popula- 
tion. 

*My estimate for January 1, 183 1 29,000,000 

" " " " 1841 31,000,000 

" " " " 1 85 1 32,000,000 

" « " " 1 86 1 33,600,000 



Sec. 10. Prussia — its area and population, with the an- 
nexations. 

The kingdom of Prussia was enlarged some by the 
treaty of peace in 18 15 ; and from that time until 1866, 
it had an area of about 107,500 English square miles. 
The population at different periods has been officially 
reported as follows : 

In 1816 10,349,031 

" 1827 (per Murray) 12,552,278 

" ^37 (per McCulloch) 14,098,125 

" 1840 per census 14,928,501 

" 1849, December 16,346,625 

" 1855 . 17,202,831 

" 1861, December 3 18,491,220 

" 1864, " 19,255,139 

The Duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg 
were wrested from Denmark by Prussia and Austria, by 
the war of 1864, and in 1866 Austria ceded her interest 
in them to Prussia. Their population at different periods 
was as follows : 

1835. 1845. 1855. i860. 

Schleswig 338,192 364,000 395,860 409,907 

Holstein 435>59 6 479>3 6 4 S^6^ 544,4*9 

Lauenburg 35>68o 46,486 49>475 S°> 1 47 



Total 809,468 889,850 968,863 1,004,473 

* See vol. i., p. 551. 



EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 635 

1 841, January I, estimated at 850,000 

185 1, " " 930,000 

1861, " " 1,010,000 

During the war of 1866, the kingdoms of Hanover and 
Nassau, the Duchy of Hesse-Cassel, and the free city of 
Frankfort, all took sides in favor of Austria, were over- 
run by Prussian armies, and finally annexed to Prussia, 
as an integral part of that kingdom. 

The population of Hanover in 1836, per census was 
1,688,280; in 1848, 1,758,856; in 1853, 1,819,253; and 
December 3, 1861, it was 1,888,070. 

The population of Nassau was 386,221. per census of 
1838; it was 418,627 in 1846; 428,218 in 185 1; and 
456,567 December 3, 1861. 

The population of Hesse-Cassel was 704,900 in 1838 ; 
732,073 December, 1846 ; 738,476 in December, 1861 ; 
and estimated at 745,063 in December, 1864; of which 
about 26 English square miles, having 7,780 inhabitants, 
were ceded in 1866 to the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darm- 
stadt in exchange for about 422 square miles of territory 
— with 75, 102- inhabitants — ceded by the latter Duchy to 
Prussia. 

Frankfort was also annexed to Prussia ; it had 63,936 
inhabitants in 1838; 70,244 in 1849; 74>7°*4 in 1855; 
and 87,518 Dec. 3, 1861. 

Bavaria ceded to Prussia, in 1866, territory having, Dec. 
3, 1864, 32,976 inhabitants. 

Area of the kingdoms, provinces and districts an- 
nexed to Prussia in 1866, and estimates from the reports 
of the census of other years, of the population thereof 
January 1. 

Area. 1841. 1851. 1861. 

Hanover 14,800 

Nassau 1,810 

Hesse-Cassel 4,200 

Frankfort 35 

Part of Bavaria. . . 213 
Part of Hesse- 7 

Darmstadt .'. . J 422 

Schleswig 3>54o 

Holstein 3,286 

and Lauenburg 404^ 

Annexed territories 28,710 



1,710,000 


1,790,000 


1,880,000 


396,000 

712,000 
65,000 


428,000 

725,000 

76,000 


455,000 

731,000 

87,000 

32,976 

75,102 


850,000 


930,000 


1,010,000 


3,733,000 


3,949,000 


4,271,078 



6$6 EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 

Area. 1841. 1851. 1861. 

Prussia before 1 866 107,500 15,000,000 16,500,000 18,350,000 
Prussia since 1866.136,210 18,733,000 20,449,000 22,621,078 

Population of Prussia according to the census of Dec. 
3, 1864: 

Ancient provinces 19*255,139 

New provinces 4,325,562 

Total 23,580,701 

Division of the population of Prussia, Dec. 3, 1864, 
according to their religious opinions : 

Ancient Provinces. New Provinces. Aggregate. 

Protestants 11,736,734 3,658,467 15,395,201 

Catholics 7,201,91 1 607,962 7,809,873 

Israelites 262,000 5 1,850 3 1 3,850 

Other sects'. 54,494 7*283 61,777 

Total 19,255,139 4,325,562 23,580,701 

The reader will see that Prussia is a Protestant power, 
and that Protestantism predominates more strongly in it 
since the annexations, than before. 



Sec. 1 1 . The North German Confederation. 

Prussia and the German States north of the river 
Main, formed a Confederation, and adopted in 1867 a 
Constitution — declaring the Union perpetual, under the 
name of the Confederation of North Germany. Article 1 1 
is as follows : The Presidency of the Confederation be- 
longs to the King of Prussia ; who, in the capacity of 
President, shall represent the Confederation in interna- 
tional relations, with power to declare war and conclude 
peace in the name of the Confederation — to contract 
alliances and make other treaties with foreign States, and 
accredit and receive diplomatic agents. Treaties whose 
objects come within the domain of Federal legislation, 
must receive the sanction of the Federal Council and of 



EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 6$7 

the Federal Parliament (or House of Delegates), before 
they take effect. 

The legislative power is vested in a Federal Council 
or Senate, composed of members from each of the 
States, and a parliament consisting of members elected 
.by the people for three years. 

The legislative power of the Confederation over na- 
tional, international, and inter-state subjects, is generally 
as extensive, and often more comprehensive and exten- 
sive than those of our Federal Government. It extends 
to and comprehends the subject of citizenship, the domi- 
cile and police of strangers and aliens, colonization, 
custom-houses, duties and imposts for Federal purposes, 
weights and measures, coinage, paper money or currency, 
banks and banking, patents for inventions, copyrights, 
foreign and inter-state commerce and navigation, rail- 
ways and the establishment of great roads and the promo- 
tion of internal navigation for the defence of the country 
and the common interest, interior navigation and navi- 
gable waters, mails and post-offices, post-roads and tel- 
egraphs, the verification of records and judgments, and 
the legalization of public documents, the law of obliga- 
tions, penal law, commercial law, bills of exchange, civil 
procedure in courts of justice, the army and navy, and 
measures of medicinal and veterinary police. It organizes 
all the kingdoms and States of the Confederation into a 
compact nation — firmly united for all national and gen- 
eral purposes. 

The results of the German war of 1866 led to the 
dismemberment, humiliation, and permanent weakening 
of the Empire of Austria and of Popery, the unity of 
Italy, and the formation of the North German Confedera- 
tion and the Constitution thereof; which is a great Prot- 
estant power, that will hold the great Catholic powers 
(France as well as Austria) in check in the future > and 
tend to the establishment of toleration and liberal prin- 
ciples in religion as well as in matters of government, in 
other countries of the civilized world. 

These progressive movements may be included among 
the most important which the history of the world has 
ever recorded. They* constitute an important step to- 



6^8 EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 

wards the general adoption of the federal system of 
government, and the overthrow of both political and 
religious tyranny throughout the civilized world. Even 
the people of the United States can learn something use- 
ful from such events, and from the new constitutions and 
laws adopted. The spirit of reform has reached even 
Austria ; the aristocracy of Great Britain and the Church 
of England are deeply moved, and begin to realize the 
necessity of relaxing the rigor of some of their ancient 
laws and customs, and of modifying their oppressive 
policies. 

Statement of the kingdoms and States forming the 
North German Confederation — and their area and popula- 
tio7i. 

Area . Population * 

square miles. 1861. Dec- 3, 1864. 

Prussia 13,136,210 22,762,300 23,580,701 

Saxony 5,766 2,225,240 2,343,994 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin 5, 200 548,449 552,612 

Saxe- Weimar 1,400 273,252 280,201 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz 1,050 99,060 98,255 

Oldenburg 2,420 295,242 314,416 

Brunswick 1,430 282,400 293,388 

Saxe-Meiningen 950 172,341 178,065 

Saxe-Altenburg 510 137,883 141,839 

Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 770 159,431 I0 4>527 

Anhalt 1,030 181,824 193,046 

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 375 71,913 73,752 

Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen. . 333 64,895 66,189 

Waldeck 430 58,604 59,H3 

Reuss (ligne aine) 145 42,130 43,924 

Reuss (ligne cadett) 320 83,360 86,472 

Schaumburg-Lippe 170 30,774 31,382 

Lippe-Detmold 440 108,513 111,336 

Lubeck — Free City (1857). . . 125 49,482 50,614 

Bremen " "... 75 98,575 104,091 

Hamburg " " ... 137 229,941 298,324 

Hesse-Darmstadt > "„„ H '^JLq„* 

Part north of the Main . . . j W* 2 ^ 75 252 ' 45 * 

Part south of the Main* 1,706 550,801 

162,267 28,817,285 29,318,722 



* The part of the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, south of the 
river Main, does not belong to the Confederation. 



EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 639 

Hesse-Homburg was annexed to Hesse-Darmstadt, and 
forms part of the territory ceded to Prussia. (See ante, 
section 10.) 

Estimates from the census reports of prior and sub- 
sequent years, of the number of inhabitants, at the 
under-mentioned periods, of the foregoing States, except 
Prussia : 

Jan. 1841. Jan. 1851. Jan. 1861. 

Estimated at 5,000,000 5,500,000 6,000,000 

Sec 12. Kingdoms allied to the North German 
Confederation. 

August 13, 1866, the kingdom of Wurtemburg con- 
cluded with Prussia a treaty of alliance, defensive and 
offensive, by which Wurtemburg engaged, in case of war, 
to place the troops of that kingdom under the command 
of the King of Prussia ; and on the 22d of the same 
month, Bavaria concluded with Prussia a treaty of alliance, 
defensive and offensive of the same character — by which 
in case of war the troops of Bavaria are to be placed 
under the command of the King of Prussia ; and on the 
17th August, Baden also concluded a treaty of alliance, 
defensive and offensive, with Prussia. 

The area of Bavaria prior to the war of 1866, was 
about 29,680 square miles, of which 212 were ceded to 
Prussia, leaving the present area of Bavaria about 29,468 
square miles. The population by the census of 1822, 
was 3,566,300, as stated by Malte-Brun. Berghaus stated 
it in 1838 at 4,338,370. It was officially reported for 
December 31, 1849, at 4>5 I 9>546; December, 1855, at 
4,541,566 ; Dec, 1 861, at 4,689,837 ; and Dec. 3, 1864, at 
4,807,440. The reports are not entirely consistent with 
each other. 

The area of Wurtemburg is about 7,530 square miles. 
Berghaus stated the population for 1838, at 1,646,780 ; 
it was, per census of December, 1850, 1,802,282 ; Dec 3, 
1 861, it was reported at 1,720,708 ; and in Dec, 1864, at 
1,748,328, — showing a decrease since 1850, and indicating 
that the census of 1850, and that of 1861 also, were 



64O EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 

probably inaccurate ; though the emigration has been 
large, the population is very dense, and the country 
over-peopled. 

The area of the Grand Duchy of Baden is about 5,900 
square miles. The population in 1838, is stated by 
Berghaus at 1,227,260 ; it was reported officially Dec, 
1849, at 1*362,774; Dec, 1858, at 1,335,952 ; Dec, 1861, 
at 1,369,291 ; and Dec, 1864, at 1,429,199. The official 
reports of 1858 and 1861 do not agree with those of 1849 
and 1864. They cannot all be accurate ; unless the dis- 
crepancies can be accounted for by emigration, which has 
been large. 

Estimates, based upon official reports of previous and 
subsequent years, of the population at the following 
periods : 

Jan. 1841. Jan. 1851. Jan. 1861. 

Bavaria 4,400,000 4,540,000 4,680,000 

Wurtemburg 1,675,000 1,700,000 1,720,000 

Baden 1,250,000 1,360,000 1,380,000 

Aggregate 7,325,000 7,600,000 7,780,000 

For military purposes, the armies, people, and revenues 
of Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and Baden, may be regarded as 
united with those of the North German Confederation — 
making the population of the Confederation and its allies, 
over 37 millions — about equal to France, and greatly 
superior to Austria. By wrenching from Austria what 
did not properly belong to her, and adding to Italy, and 
by means of the national spirit and patriotism of the 
Italians, nearly all Italy has been united under one govern- 
ment, and raised to a great power ; while Austria has 
been weakened, and the Ottoman empire is ready to fall 
to pieces. 

Litchten stein, a little principality of about 61 square 
miles, and 7,150 inhabitants, has been left out of all the 
confederations, as an independent sovereignty ; as is the 
case with the part of Hesse-Darmstadt lying south of 
the river Main. 



EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 64 1 



Sec. 13. Denmark. 

After losing the Duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and 
Lauenburg, Denmark was reduced to a very small power 
— the peninsula and the islands comprising Denmark 
proper having an area of only about 14,700 square miles. 
The population, as reported by the census at different 
periods, was as follows : 



1801 924,974 

February, 1850. . . 1,407,747 



in 1834 1,223,797 

February 1, 1860.1,600,551 



The extraordinary fact is here presented, that while the 
increase of the population of Denmark was less than one 
per cent, annually from 1801 to 1834, and also from the 
latter period to 1850, it exceeded one and a third per 
cent, annually, from 1850 to i860. The increased ratio 
of increase can be attributed only to the influence of 
improvements in agricultural, mechanical, and medical 
science, and to steam navigation and railroads. 

Estimate of the population January, 1841 1,300,000 

" " « « 1851 1,424,000 

" " """ 1861 1,618,000 

The influence upon population, of the modern elements 
of civilization and progress, has been rarely shown more 
clearly in an old country than it has in Denmark. 

Sec. 14. Sweden and Norway. 

The area of Sweden is about 170,715 square miles; 
and that of Norway about 121,725. 

Several enumerations of the people of Sweden and 
Norway have been made and officially reported, as fol- 
lows : 



Sweden. 

1820 2,584,690 

1825 ...2,771,252 

1839, December .3,109,772 
1845 " .3.3I6.536 
1849 " .3,433,803 

1855 3,641,600 

i860, December .3,859,728 
1866 " .4,160,677 



Norway. 
l8l5 88547O 

1826, November . 1,050,132 

1835 1,194,827 

1845, December .1,328,471 

1855, December .1,490,047 
1865 " .1,701,478 



642 EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 

Estimates of the population at the under-mentioned 
periods : 

Jan. 1841. Jan. 1851. Jan. 1861. 

Sweden , 3,140,000 3,465,000 3,860,000 

Norway 1,260,000 1,410,000 1,595,000 

Total 4,400,000 4,875,000 5,455,000 

The reader will see from the tables, that the ratio of 
annual and decennial increase has been rising in Sweden 
and Norway also, as well as in Denmark ; and it must be 
from the same causes ; for the emigration from all those 
countries has been much larger since 1850, than it ever 
was previous to that time. 

Sec. 15. Russian Empire. 

The Russians acquired the eastern part of Finland by 
conquest and cession of Sweden in 1721, and the western 
part in the same manner in 1809. 

There have been three divisions of Poland (in 1772, 
1793, and 1798), between Russia, Prussia, and Austria; 
in each of which Russia acquired a large portion of its 
territory, and by the last of which it was annihilated as 
an independent kingdom. 

In 1 77 1 the Russians wrested the peninsula of Crimea 
from the Turks, and annexed it to the Empire in 1784. 
They acquired Bessarabia, by conquest and cession from 
Turkey, in 18 12, and some fortresses on the frontier, and 
the mouths of the Danube by treaty in 1829; which 
were the last acquisitions of territory made by the Rus- 
sians in Europe. By the treaty of 1856, a small portion 
of the last acquisitions on the Danube and the frontiers 
of Bessarabia, were re-ceded to Turkey, and now form 
part of Moldavia. 

The Russians acquired a nominal title to Georgia, and 
annexed it to the Empire, in 1801 ; in 18 13, Persia ceded 
to Russia her title to the Caucasus, lying adjoining to 
Georgia — between the Black and Caspian seas ; and the 
Russians have been at war with the native chiefs and 
mountaineers of those countries, much of the time, for 



EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 643 

more than 50 years past, and have succeeded in conquer- 
ing the most of them. 

Russia has, within a few years past, made considerable 
conquests in Northern Tartary, and acquired from China 
the northern part of Mantchooria on the Amoor river, 
and the large island of Sagh alien, and several other 
islands in the Pacific Ocean ; so that the Asiatic domin- 
ions of the Empire are much larger now (1868) than they 
were fifty years since — though the possessions in Europe 
remain substantially the same ; and Russian America 
has been recently ceded to the United States. 

Statement of the area. in English square miles (exclu- 
sive of lakes, gulfs, and bays) according to the Almanach 
de Gotha of 1868, and the population December 31, 
1863: 

Area, 1868. Population, 1863. 

Russia proper, in Europe 1,832,900 61,325,923 

Kingdom of Poland 49,000 5,100,000 

Grand Duchy of Finland 143,100 1,798,909 

Total in Europe 2,025,000 68,224,832 

Trans-Caucasian Provinces 167,800 4,157,917 

Siberia 5,55 1,200 4,625,699 

Total Russian Empire 7,744,000 77,008,448 

Statement of the number of inhabitants as officially 
reported for 

1838. 1851. 1858. 

Russia proper 49,266,500 53,609,850 59,330,752 

Kingdom of Poland .. . 4,298,960 4,852,055 4,800,000 
Finland , 1,397,140 1,660,763 1,680,000 

Total in Europe 54,962,600 60,122,668 65,810,752 

Tr p";?nc U e C s aS . ian }--- 2 ' 000 ' 000 2 ' I 73-584 4,257,704 

Siberia 2,649,600 2,887,184 4,070,938 

Russian America 61,000 54,000 not incl. 

Russian Empire . . . 59,673,200 65,237,436 74,139,394 



644 EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 

These reports are not, in all cases, consistent with 
each other ; and many of them are stated in the Al- 
manach de Gotha to be estimates and deductions of the 
Committee of Statistics of the provinces, from partial 
enumerations ; and in some cases from the census of 
other years ; and yet there is no reason to doubt that 
they are good approximations to accuracy. 

Estimates of the population of the Russian domin- 
ions in 

Jan. 1841. Jan. 1851. Jan. 1861. 

In Europe 55,800,000 60,000,000 66,750,000 

In Asia 4,750,000 5,000,000 8,500,000 



Russian Empire. .60,550,000 65,000,000 75,250,000 

See vol. i., pp. 571 and 572 for the population previous 
to .1838. My estimates there made, for 1840, and 1850 
based on Tegoborski's work, were too high. 

The railroad from St. Petersburg to Moscow was the 
first road of the kind, of much importance, made in 
Russia, and that was completed and opened in the year 
185 1. At the end of the year 1866, there were in 
operation in Russia 2,775 miles of railway, and other 
roads in the process of construction. The construction 
of railroads created a large demand for labor, and for 
timber as well as iron ; gave an impetus to industry, 
business and enterprise, and to other improvements, as 
in other countries. It must have increased very much 
the value of property within the reach of their influence, 
and was probably the means of increasing marriages and 
the ratio of increase of the population, which has been 
much greater since 185 1 than it was previously, as is 
shown by the foregoing tables. 

The abolition of serfdom in Russia is one of the great 
events of the 19th century. The number of male serfs 
reported in 1834, was 10,8.65,993 ; which would make 
nearly 22 millions, including the females of the serf 
families ; and the increase was so rapid, that they num- 
bered nearly 30 millions in 186 1. By a decree of the 
Emperor, promulgated in March, 1861, it was ordered 
and decreed that the landed proprietors should allow the 



EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 645 

serfs to cultivate their lands at fixed rents ; and that the 
serfs should be at liberty to purchase, from the estates 
of the proprietors, sufficient land for their support and 
that of their families ; and that at the end of two years 
they should be free. That decree was hailed with joy 
by the friends of freedom and justice, humanity and 
Christian civilization, everywhere ; and has been carried 
into effect — amidst the prayers and rejoicing of the 
Christian world. 



Sec. 16. Moldavia and Wallachia. 

Moldavia has an area of about 18,436 square miles, 
and Wallachia 28,264 ; total 46,700 square miles, being 
about as large as the State of New York. 

These two Principalities have long been tributary to 
the Sultan of Turkey; Wallachia since the year 1396, 
and Moldavia since 1504. 

The partial census and official estimates of the popula- 
tion in 1844, put it down at 1,400,000 for Moldavia, and 
2,600,000 for Wallachia. The Almanach de Gotha for 
1868, says that, according to an official report of the Cen- 
tral Directory of Statistics for 1859 to i860, the popula- 
tion of Moldavia was 1,463,927 ; and that of Wallachia 
2,400,921. 

The inhabitants are mostly members of, or attached 
to, the Greek Church — very hostile to Mahometanism ; 
and hence they have been restive under the Turkish 
yoke, and in a state of insurrection and war with the 
Turks, much of the time, for centuries past. By the 
treaty of Adrianople in 1829, the Sultan recognized the 
Emperor of Russia as their protector. In 1858, each 
elected Alexander Couza as Hospodar (or Governor) for 
life, which served to unite the interests and the destinies 
of the two principalities. By proclamation of December 
23, 1 86 1, the two principalities were united under the 
name of Roumania. The tendency of the age seems to be 
to union, confederation, and the federal system of govern- 
ment. 

A military insurrection broke out February 23, 1866, 
Prince Couza was surprised and arrested in his palace, 



646 EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 

compelled to abdicate, a provisional government was 
formed, which recommended the election of Prince Charles 
of Hohenzollern, and he was elected by the people ; and 
soon afterwards took an oath to support the Constitu- 
tion, entered upon his duties, and has been recognized 
by the great powers of Europe, and also by the Sultan. 
Roumania is now practically independent of Turkey 
for all purposes, except the payment of a small annual 
tribute to the Sultan, which will not probably continue 
long. 



Sec. 1 7. Servia and Montenegro. 

The principalities of Servia and Montenegro are both 
tributary, and pay a small tribute to the Sultan — 
recognizing his sovereignty ; but for all other purposes, 
they are practically independent. By virtue of an order 
of the Sultan, made April 10, 1867, the fortresses of 
Servia have been evacuated by the Turks, and are to be 
occupied hereafter by Servian troops only. 

Servia has an area of about 21,150 square miles, 
1,000,000 inhabitants, according to the official report of 
1844, and 1,078,281, according to the census of 1859. 

The area of Montenegro is about 1,700 square 
miles ; the population previous to i860, was estimated 
by the Government of Turkey, at 1 30,000 ; but according 
to a census taken in 1864, the number reported was 
196,238. 

Sec. 1 8. Greece and the Ionian islands. 

In 1 82 1, there was a general insurrection against the 
tyranny of the Turks in Moldavia and Wallachia, as well 
as in Greece. In January, 1822, the provisional govern- 
ment of Greece formally proclaimed the independence 
of the country. The Turks waged a barbarous war 
against the Greeks for several years, overrun and devas- 
tated Greece, until finally Great Britain, France, and 
Russia interfered, sent their fleets and troops to aid the 
Greeks, defeated the Turks in the great naval engage- 



EUROPE, AND ITS ISLANDS AND POSSESSIONS. 647 

ment of Navarino, in October, 1827, and secured the 
independence of Greece. 

The Ionian Islands were taken by the British, during 
their wars with Napoleon Bonaparte, and remained 
under the protection of England from the peace of 181 5, 
until they were finally united with Greece by treaty, in 
1864. 

Statement of the area and population of 





Greece. 




Ionian Islands. 


Total. 


Area square miles . . . 


.. 19,125 




I,IOO 


20,225 


Population 1835 


.. 688,626 


1836.. 


204,266 


892,892 


" 1851.... 


. . 998,266 


1852.. 


220,000 


1,218,266 


" 1856.... 


. .1,067,216 


1856.. 


227,106 


1,294,322 


" 1861.... 


. . 1,096,810 


i860.. 


232,426 


1,329,236 


Estimated for 1841 . . 


. . *8oo,ooo 


1841.. 


219,000* 


1,010,000 



The reader will see that, since Greece became independ- 
ent, the population has increased rapidly ; while every 
country and province which has continued under the 
paralyzing influence of Turkish domination, has been sta- 
tionary, and has not made any progress in either popula- 
tion or industry. 

Sec. 19. Population of Europe. 

Statement, in thousands, of the population of the 
several countries of Europe. By adding three 000 to 
each, the reader will have the whole population in round 
numbers, at the beginning of the under-mentioned 
years : 

1841. 1851. 1861. 

Great Britain and Ireland .. . 27,041 27,674 29,321 

Heligoland 2 2 2 

Gibraltar 12 12 15 

Malta and Gozza 120 128 148 

France and Corsica 34,194 35>7 Sl 37>47 2 

Netherlands 2,996 3,267 3,521 

Carried forward 64,365 66,864 7°A79 

* Estimates only. 



648 POPULATION OF EUROPE. 

1841. 1851. 1861. 

Brought forward 64,365 66,864 70,479 

Belgium 4,284 4,450 4,732 

Portugal 3,412 3,487 3,693 

" islands 350 342 342 

Spain 14,000 15,000 16,500 

Switzerland 2,250 2,395 2,5 10 

Italy and islands 23,200 24,700 24,940 

Austrian Empire 31,000 32,000 33,600 

Prussia 18,733 20,449 22,621 

Other States of N. German ) „ nnn „ „~« * ^^ 

Confederation | ^°°° 5,500 6,000 

Allied States 7,325 7,600 7,780 

Denmark 1,300 1,424 1,618 

Sweden 3,140 3,465 3,860 

Norway 1,260 1,410 1,595 

European Russia 5 5, 800 60,000 66,750 

Moldavia and Wallachia 3,600 3,700 3,865 

Servia 1,000 1,050 1,100 

Montenegro 120 150 185 

Greece and Ionian isles 1,010 1,218 1,330 

Turkey in Europe 10,500 10,500 10,500 

Total Europe 25 1,649 265,704 284,000 

The reader will observe that, in Great Britain, France 
and Belgium, Spain and Portugal, Prussia and Denmark, 
Sweden and Norway, the Austrian empire and Russia, 
the increase of the population from £851 to 1861 was 
greater than it was during the previous ten years ; and 
yet the emigration from Europe to America and Austra- 
lia has been nearly three times as large since 1850 as 
it was previously. Wherever there is a field of employ- 
ment not fully occupied, an increase of population in time 
of peace, always accompanies progress in the useful arts, 
in industry, and in civilization. Large expenditures for 
railroads, and their influence upon agriculture and other 
branches of industry, and upon commerce, have been the 
principal causes of the population of many countries of 
Europe increasing more rapidy since 1850, than ever be- 
fore. The population of Europe will probably be 300 
millions or more, at the end of the year 1870. 



RAILROADS OF THE WORLD. 649 

Sec. 20. The Railroads of Europe, and of the World. 

Statement of the number of miles of Railway, 
completed and in operation, in the several countries of 
Europe, and in other parts of the world, at the end of 

the years : 

1850. 1866. 

In England and Wales \ *9,25 1 

" Scotland [ 6,500 *2,200 

" Ireland ) ^1,838 

" France about 1,807 8,982 J 

" Spain none 3,1 16J 

" Portugal none 433 

" Switzerland none 824 

" Italy none 3,2 1 3 

" Austrian empire ^ 3,831 

" South Germany, elsewhere I , „. ',,„ 2,540 

« Prussia f about 4,540 s ^ s 

" North Germany, elsewhere J 1,092 J- 

" Belgium 350 1,595 

" Holland none 701 

" Denmark none 205 

" Sweden none 1,0231 

" Norway none 43 J 

" Russia 422 2,775 

" Turkey in Europe none 170J 

Total in Europe about 13,619! 49,630 

In Asia : — 

" Turkey in Asia none 143 

" British India , none 3,379 

" Ceylon none 37 

" Java none 101 

" Africa :— 

" Egypt none 281 

" Algeria none 28 

" Cape Colony none 84J 

" Natal none 2 



Carried forward 13,619 53,685^ 

* 7,503 miles of the roads in the United Kingdom had double tracks. 
I" See vol. i., pp. 504 and 505. 

28 



OS 
u 

W 

< 



65O RAILROADS OF THE WORLD. 

1850. i860. 

Brought forward 13,619 53,685-J- 

In Victoria none 33 1 \ 

New South Wales none 145J 

South Australia none 73^- 

Queensland none 41 

New Zealand none 16 

Canada about 100 2,148 

New Brunswick none 198 

Nova Scotia none 93 

United States 8,589 36,896 

Mexico none 78 

Cuba (Island) 359 396J 

Jamaica (Island) ....... 

Venezuela 

New Grenada 

British Guiana , 

Brazil 

Paraguay 

Argentine Republic . . . 

Chili 337 

Peru J 55 



14 

32 

* none 47J 

see ante ) 60 

► P. 552. J 433 

none 46 

231 



Total, World about 22,667 95,358 

Less than 23,000 miles of Railway had been comple- 
ted, and were in operation in the World, at the end of 
the year 1850; though many thousand miles were then 
in the process of construction. About 100,000 miles 
are now (April, 1868) completed, and in operation ; and 
perhaps between twenty and thirty thousand more in 
the process of construction. 

The cost of the Railways of Great Britain and Ire- 
land, at the end of the year 1865, has been stated at 
^456,421,000, and the gross income for that year, at 
^35,890,000.^ 

Steam-engines and steam-navigation, railroads and 
locomotives, are the most powerful agents ever invented 
by man, to promote the industry and the general phys- 
ical welfare of the human family. 

* 22 miles of the Panama Railroad were opened in 1851. 



INDEX. 



A. 

Abyssinia, 413 and 414. 
Afghanistan, 257 to 260. 
Africa — tropical, 366 to 421. 

" races of, 368 to 373, and 380 to 383. 

" elements of discord and corruption, 378 to 380. 

" Eastern, 415. 

" Central — or Soudan, 416. 

" interior — south of Soudan, 417 to 419. 

" population of, 420. 
Agricultural statistics of United States, 569. 
Algeria, 266 to 269. 
America — discovery of, 30. 

" population of, 551. 
American Colonization Society, 407 to 409. 
Amusements and vices, 159 to 161. 
Anam — Empire of, 306. 
Arabia, 253 to 256. 
Arabic figures and arithmetic, 21. 
Argentine Confederation, 541 to 544, 
Aridity, 89. 

Aristocracy — nature's aristocracy, 109. 
Armies — standing, 104. 
Artesian wells, 81. 

Asylums for the insane, blind, etc., 306. 
Australian colonies, 340 to 353. 
Austrian Empire, 632 to 634. 



B. 

Bahama and Bermuda Islands, 514 to 515. 

Bali — island of, 451. 

Banca — island of, 444. 

Banks, banking, and bills of exchange, 60 to 62. 

Banks and bank-notes in United States, 587 to 592. 

Banks for savings, 64 to 66. 

Baden, 640. 

Barbadoes, 515. 

Bavaria, 639 and 640. 

Belgium, 629. 

Belize, or British Honduras, 521. 

Belochistan, 257. 

Bible and Christianity, 20. 



652 INDEX. 

Billiton, 444. 

Birmah — Empire of, 306 to 315. 

Bolivia, 537. 

Bonds of union, 121. 

Borneo, 445. 

Bourbon — island of, 398. 

Brahminism, 129 to 131. 

Brazil, 548 to 550. 

Bremen, 638. 

British Columbia, 623. 

British North America, 615 to 624. 

British West India Islands, 511 to 521. 

Brunswick, 638. 

Buddhism, 131. 

Buenos Ayres, 542. 



Canada farm, 622. 

Canada, Upper and Lower, 615 to 624. 

Canals, and river improvements, 55 and 325. 

Canary Islands, 630. 

Cape of Good Hope, 353. 

Cape Verd Islands, 630. 

Caroline Islands, 475. 

Catholic America, 525 to 555. 

Celebes, 447 to 450. 

Central America, 532 to 533. 

Ceylon — island of, 318 and 322. 

Chili, 538 to 541. 

Chimneys and stoves, 57. 

China and the Chinese, 278 to 294. 

Chinese Tartary, 297. 

Christianity, 135 and 20. 

its perversions, 136 to 139. 
" its influence, 157 to 159. 

Civil and religious liberty, 33 to 35. 
Climate — effects of on complexion, 182. 

" on animals and vegetables, 183 and 184. 

" " on intellect, 185 to 193. 

" " on national character and habits, 199 to 202. 

Clocks and watches, 30. 
Coal-gas, 68. 

Cochin-China, 306 to 313. 

Coercive system of labor in Hayti, 506 and 507. 
Colombia, 534. 
Colony of Natal, 357. 
Colored men — future status of, 204 to 210. 
their security, 211 and 212. 
their education, 224 to 228. 
Comments upon the elements of progress, 86. 
Commerce and navigation, 12. 
Commerce of the United States, 584 to 586. 
Common public schools, 56. 
Compass — the mariner's, 25. 
Coolies, 485 and 513. 



INDEX. k 653 

Cook's Islands, 477. 
Corea, 303. 

Corporations, 19 to 25. 
Cuba, 483 to 485. 
Curacoa, 489. 

D. 

Daguerrotyping, 80. 

Danish West India Islands, 490. 

Debt— public, of United States, 577. 

Debts — their depressing influences, 114, 

Desert of Sahara, 273. 

Division of employments, 12. 

Domestic animals, 10 ; and 217 to 218. 

Dominican Republic, 498 to 500. 

Dutch Guiana, 523. 

Dutch possessions in the East Indies, 442 and 443. 

Dutch Republics in Africa, 41 1 to 413. 

Dutch West India Islands, 489 to 490. 

E. 

Earthen and stoneware, 1 1. 
Ecclesiastical government, 128. 
Ecuador, 536. 
Education in Turkey, 239 and 240. 

" of colored people, 224 to 228; and see British West India 
Islands. 
Egypt, 262 to 265. 
Electric telegraphs, 75. 
Elements of progress — natural, I to 5. 
" artificial, 6 to 9. 

Emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland, 626. 

" to the United States, 560 to 562. 

" to Canada, 616. 
England — see Great Britain. 
Europe, 625 to 648. 

" population of, 647 and 648. 
Evidences of intellect, 2. 
Express companies, 78. 

F. 

Feejee Islands, 475. 

Feudal system, 99 and 100. 

Fernando Po (island), 364. 

Finland, 643. 

Fixed habitations — importance of, 12. 

Flores — island of, 452. 

Forests and mountains — influence of, on climate, 27 1. 

Forts and trading posts in Guinea, 363. 

France, 627 and 628. 

Frankfort (in Germany), 635. 

French Guiana, or Cayenne, 523. 

French Possessions in Africa, 396 to 399, 

French West India Islands, 487 and 488. 

Friendly Islands, 476. 



654 INDEX. 

G. 

Gambia, 363. 

Gas— Coal, 68. 

Geometry, 20. 

German Confederation— North, 636 to 638. 

German States — confederated, 638. 

Glass, and glass windows, 27. 

Gold and silver produced in United States, 574 to 576. 

Governments and written laws, 17. 

Governments — legitimate powers of, 126. 

Government — the federal system of, 47 to 50. 

Great Britain and Ireland, 625 and 626. 

Greece, 646. 

Guadaloupe, 487. 

Guiana — British, 521. 

" Dutch, 523. 

" French, 523. 
Gunpowder and fire-arms, 66. 

H. 

Habits of industry — importance of, 18 and 96. 
Hamburg (Germany), 638. 
Hanover (Germany), 635. 
Harbors — their importance, 90. 
Hayti, 491 to 508. 

" coercive system of labor in, 506 and 507. 
Heat and cold — effects of, on man, 185 to 193. 
Hesse-Cassel, 635. 
Hesse-Darmstadt, 638. 
Hieroglyphics, 15 and 16. 
Hindostan and the Hindoos, 316 to 339. 
Holland, or Netherlands, 628. 
Holstein — Duchy of, 634. 
Honduras, British, 521. 

House of Commons — development of its powers, 164 to 169. 
Human hand, 2. 

I. 

Importations, large — effect of, no to 112. 

Independent Tartary, 260 to 262. 

India beyond the Ganges, 306. 

Indians, American — their capacity and character, 213 to 227. 

Inflated currency — influence of, 592 to 594 ; and see Paper money. 

Inquisition, 97. 

Insecurity of property, 106. 

Insurances and insurance companies, 62 to 64. 

Instruction — means of, 154 to 156. 

Intellect — character of, in hot climates, 190 to 1 95. 

Ionian islands, 647. 

Ireland — see Great Britain and Ireland. 

Italy, 631. 



Jamaica — island of, 508 to 511. 
Japan, 304. 






INDEX. 65$ 



Java and Madura, 437 to 442. 

Jews and negroes — their history compared, 203. 

Judaism, 134. 

Judicial power — its development, 169 to 173. 



Labor-saving implements and machinery, 76. 
Ladrone islands, 474. 

Language — written language — importance of, 280. 
Lauenburg — Duchy of, 634. 
Law and jurisprudence — how developed, 161. 
Law and organization, 122. 

Legislation — the elective representative principle of, 39 to 42. 
" by the concurrent action of two bodies, 42 to 45. 

Legislative power of House of Commons — how developed, 164 to 169. 
Letters and written language, 16. 
Liberia, 407 to 41 1. 
Liberty — civil and religious, 33 to 35. 
" how developed, 162 to 164. 
Libraries, 18. 
Locomotives, 73 to 75. 
Lubeck, 638. 

Lumbering in Canada, 620. 
Lumbering in United States, 597 to 599. 

M. 
Machinery of various kinds, 59. 
Madagascar, 400 to 407. 
Magianism, 133. 
Magna Charta, 50. 

Mahomet and his followers, 145 to 150. 
Mahometan religion, 97, and 139 to 141. 
Mahometanism — influence of, 274 to 276. 
Mahometan countries and peoples, 230 to 276. 
Malay — Peninsula, 433. 
Mantchooria, 299. 

Manufacturing industry in the United States, 565. 
Martinique, 488. 
Mauritius — island of, 358 to 361. 
Maxims of law, morals, and political economy, 51. 
Mayotte, 399. 
Mechanical inventions, 10. 
Mecklinburg, 638. 
Mexico, 530 to 532. 
Military science, 67. 
Military service, 104 to 106. 
Miscegenation, 212 to 215. 
Moldavia, 645. 

Moluccas, or Spice Islands, 453 to 455. 
Monastic orders, and monasteries, 98. 
Mongolia, 297. 

Mongolian countries, 277 to 315. 
Monopoly of property, 99 and 112 to 1 14. 
Montenegro, 646. 
Moral and social statistics of the British West Indies, 517 to 519. 



656 INDEX. 

Moral suasion and ecclesiastical government, 128. 

Morocco — empire of, 269 to 271. 

Mountains and forests — their influence on climate, 271. 

Municipal corporations, 21. 

Music, painting, and sculpture, 79. 

N. 
Nassau, 635. 
Natal — colony of, 357. 
National banks and bank-notes, 588. 
Natural sciences, 19. 
Navigator's Islands, 477. 
Negro — see Colored men. 
Negro nations — religion and morals of, 385 to 388. 

" languages of, 388. 

Negro race — their characteristics, 194 to 199. 

" inferiority of, 393 to 396. 

Netherlands, 628. 
New Brunswick, 615 to 619. 
New Caledonia, New Britain, New Ireland, and New Hebrides, 469 and 

470. 
Newfoundland, 615 to 619. 
New Grenada, 534. 
New Guinea, 455 to 457. 
New Holland, 340. 
New South Wales, 342 to 345. 
New Zealand, 344. 

Non-intervention — principle of, 36 to 39. 
North German Confederation, 636 to 639. 
Norway, 641. 
Nova Scotia, 615 to 619. 

O. 

Obstacles to progress, 88 to 115. 
Oceanica, 422 to 481. 

" origin and character of the people, 428 to 432. 

" its inhabitants — comments on, 478 to 481. 
Oldenburg, 638. 

Organization and law, 122 to 126 and 154. 
Organic laws of the States — deterioration of, 601 to 604. 
Organized churches, 156. 
Ottoman empire, 232. 

P. 

Painting, 80. 

Paper, 27. 

Paper money, 115 to 117, and 587 to 593. 

Papua — see New Guinea. 

Paraguay, 544 to 546. 

Party spirit — its evils and remedies, 117, and 604 to 608. 

Pelew Islands, 475. 

Penitentiaries, 69. 

Persia, 257 to 260. 

Peru, 536. 



INDEX. 657 

Philippine Islands, 457 to 462. 

Photographing, 80. 

Poland, 642 and 643. 

Political science, 45 to 47. 

Polynesian Islands — climate and character of the people, 463 to 469. 

Polytheism, 132. 

Population — see the several countries and colonies. 

Porto Rico, 486. 

Portugal, 629 and 630. 

Post-offices, post-roads, and mails, 52 to 54. 

Preaching, 156. 

Primogeniture — laws of, 108 to no. 

Prince Edward Island, 615 to 619. 

Printing presses and movable types, 27. 

Progress of law and government, 173 to 175. 

Prussia, 634. 

Public policy, 83 to 85. 

Queensland, 341 to 345. 



Q. 



R. 
Races of men, 176 and 177. 

causes of differences in, 177 to 182. 
inferiority of the negro races, 393 to 396. 
in Oceanica, 425 to 427. 
Railroads, 71 to 73, '325 to 327, 551 to 553, 563, 618, and 649. 
in the United States, and their cost, 543. 
" in Europe and the world, 649 and 650. 

Reconstruction measures of Congress, 208, and 608 to 614. 
Religious delusions and intolerance, 100 to 103. 
Religious toleration, 31. 
Revenues of the United States, 578 to 580. 
Roads and Bridges, 54 and 55, and 324 and 325. 
Roman Empire — Western — its fall, 141 to 145. 

causes of its decline and fall, 150 to 154. 
Russian Empire, 641 to 645. 

S. 

Saba — island of, 489. 
Sahara — desert of, 273. 
San Domingo, 491 to 508. 
St. Eustatius, 489. 
St. Martin, 487 to 489. 
St. Thomas, 490. 
St. Helena, 365. 
Sandwich Islands, 471 to 474. 
Santa Cruz, 490. 

Savings Banks — see Banks for savings. 
Saxe-Weimar, 638. 
Saxony, 638. 
Saw-mills, 30. 
Schleswig — Duchy of, 634. 
Schools and Colleges, 18 and 156 and 157. 
28* 



658 INDEX. 

Schools of the Natural and Mechanical Sciences, 77. 

Scotland — see Great Britain. 

Sculpture, 80. 

Self-government — its educating influences, 228 and 229. 

Servia, 646. 

Seychelles Islands, 361. 

Siam, 306 to 312. 

Sierra Leone and Gambia, 361 to 363. 

Slavery — chattel, 107. 

" influence of, on national character and habits, 199 to 202. 
Society Islands, 477. 
Solomon's Islands, 471. 
Sooloo Islands, 462. 
Spain, 630 to 631. 
Spice Islands — see Moluccas. 
Standing armies, 104. 
Steam-engines, 58. 
Steam navigation, 71 and 551 to 553. 
Stoves, 57. 

Sumatra — island of, 434. 
Sumbawa, 452 and 453. 
Sweden, 641. 

Swedish West India Islands, 491. 
Switzerland, 631. 



Tasmania, 343. 

Tartars — history and achievements of, 301. 
Tartary or Turkestan, 260 to 262. 
Taxation — excessive, 108. 

" in United States, 576 to 583. 
Telegraphs — electric, 75. 
Telescope, 29. 

Temperance — cause of, 594 to 596. 
Thibet, 295. 

Timber and wood, 596 to 600. 
Timor — island of, 452. 

Treasury notes issued by the United States, 588. 
Tripoli and Tunis, 265. 
Turkey in Europe, 233 to 248. 

" in Asia, 236. 

" probable destiny of, 249 to 253. 
Tyranny, 108. 

U. 

United States of America, 556 to 614. 
Uruguay, 547. 



V. 

Vancouver's Island, 623. 

Van Diemen's land, 343 ^ 

Venezuela, 535. 

Victoria, 341 and 343. 

Virtue, public and private — its importance, 20. 



Wallachia, 645. 

Wars and insurrections, 103. 

Watches and clocks, 30. 

West India Islands, 482 to 520. 

Wood and timber, 596 to 600. 

Workhouses, 69. 

Wurtemburg, 639 and 640. 



INDEX. 659 

W. 



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